


c 



v 






C 















•P "\ 



\V' 



- v * • 



o , %■ 









\ %. > 



&> <v 



r 



«, 






£*^ 



( 



'V' 






*%. 






^6* 









rO- 



<. 



^ 






V 



rf* 












'v. ,<v 



&> v 












< 






- "^ G ' - * 



■^.cv ^G* 



^ o s 






ifr 



>S Q, 



** 






1 ,-\N 



.V 






^ °«. 



V 



f 2* 



A. 






> OS? ^ 






G* y - 

^ *•* ^ 






'■% 



^G* 



\>_ 



3 V 



^ °- 






v k v ^, v 



c <fe 






^ & 



% 






c$ *** 



C 



# ^ A G <v -^ 

G ' '"%> G° * ' 









^0< 



•^o^ 



x^ V 



^ ^ 



\^ 



9-< 



" «. , % 






^ 



^ °- 



S» A. 












^> G ^ G v •■ r <%> ^ 









.& 



^tf 



o5 Q* 












\# °<W /\/ 



c3 ^ - > 



\VJ 



o" , . < >, <c* 



AY 






^0^ 


















. o v 



^ 









^ ^ 



\ "^ .\ %<$ 






I* 1 



<5 <2^ ^ °^ 









•%<»< ,%.#: W 



^> A, 



c^ •*+ 






& «*► 



» ^ /' ^ * -^ 






•c 



A* < <■ 









x oi x ^v <iy 



£ °«< 






•-%„ ^ 



% 









<£ S. 



> s ^. 






V 









£ °^ 






% 



,^ : 






^0^ 



Q, "/ 



X> ^ 



^ 






■ 












c°\ ;s^ 



^, ,.\ 









^>. ^v 









&d"Ju/. C*i 94. If ft- 



vu\.&-s % 



» o 



CONCISE 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND 

FROM THE 

FIRST INVASION BY THE ROMANS, 

TO 

THE ACCESSION OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 



WRITTEN ON A NEW PLAN, 
WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO CHRONOLOGY AND FACTS. 

BY W.^ CLARK, ESQ. 



EDITED, WITH ADDITIONS, 

BY JAMES C. MOFFAT, M. A., 

PROF. OF .ESTHETICS AND LATIN LITERATURE, IN MIAMI UNIVERSITY. 



REVISED EDIxiON, WITH QUESTIONS. 



CINCINNATI: 
MOORE & ANDERSON, PUBLISHERS, 

NEW YORK: NEWMAN & IVISON. 

1853. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by 

WM. H. MOORE, 

In the Clerk's office of the U. S. District Court for the District of Ohio. 









?3 



±? 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



The importance of history as an element in education, is daily becom- 
ing more generally confessed. Experience constitutes the principal cause 
of difference between the judgments of mature age, and the crude notions 
of boyhood ; and the experience of the individual is chiefly drawn from 
his acquaintance with the lives of others. But history has accumulated 
the observations of the wisest men upon the experience of thousands. 
Right, with its results of blessedness, and honor, and wrong, with all its 
consequents of misery, are illustrated upon her panorama, in the exam- 
ples of both individuals and nations. The youth, therefore, who is dis- 
posed to learn as the wise learn in life, may, by this means, add the 
most valuable of that experience which honors age, to the active habits 
and generous impulses of early years. 

Though every page of history is valuable to human instruction, a 
special interest must always belong to records of the student's own par- 
ticular race ; not only because he naturally loves them most ; but also 
because therein he will find, more than anywhere else in history, what 
ought to influence his own career in life. There is necessarily such a 
connection between him and the people of whom he is descended, that 
his own duties are, in a great measure, dictated thereby. Many points 
on which the life of an Englishman ought to differ from that of a French- 
man, are due entirely to the inheritance which he has received from his 
fathers ; and that German must be condemned as recreant to the obliga- 
tions laid upon him by his country, who should content himself with 
the ignorance that might be excusable in a Kalmuck ; while the long- 
felt wants of Italy and Hungary impose upon every child of those lands 
a weightier duty of effort for deliverance and redress, than rests upon 
the descendants of the free. 

There is, thus, to the native of the United States, instruction of more 
immediate utility in the history of England, than in any other history, 
except that of his own country. For, although the American people are 
composed of various elements, their national institutions are the matured 
growth of those of Great Britain, the great mission, which they recog- 
nize as their own, is that bequeathed by the men of the British Common- 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

wealth, and the spirit of constitutional liberty, which pervades and 
animates the nation, is of British origin entirely. The motive to the 
war of independence was only the spirit of the father reviving in the 
son ; the same that burned in John Hampden and Algernon Sidney ; 
not the meteoric flash, which has occasionally lighted up one and ano- 
ther nation of the European continent, going out in darkness deeper 
than before ; but the calm, steady light of the morning, which from the 
feeble dawn slowly, but firmly increases to the full light of day. The 
only explanation of her own national existence and apparent destiny, 
which America can find, out of herself, is to be sought in the history of 
that island, which she truly calls the parent country. The lesson there- 
in contained, both in example and warning, ought to be among the first 
presented to the youth of this Republic ; that they may early learn to 
appreciate their privileges, from a knowledge of the price, in toil, in suff- 
ering, in time, in genius and human life, at which they were purchased. 

For such a purpose, the publishers conceived the present work emin- 
ently fitted, and the favor with which the first edition has been received, 
goes to confirm their opinion. Without being presented to the public with 
the claims of a school-book, it has already been adopted in some of the 
best schools in the country. 

The plan pursued by the author is that of keeping the chronological 
order of events unembarrassed and prominent. All the great facts of En- 
glish history are arranged in an order so simple and clear, that the stu- 
dent, upon completing its perusal, must retain a distinct conception of the 
whole, constituting a frame-work, which the reading of other books on 
the subject, however detached and promiscuous, will afterward fill up in 
conformity with just design. A separate chronological table was thereby 
rendered unnecessary ; but a series of questions for examination has 
been added to the present edition, and the whole has been carefully re- 
vised. It is hoped that the volume will now be found still better adapt- 
ed to the purposes of education, and supply, in some good degree, the 
national want to which it is addressed. 

Cincinnati, October 1st, 1852. 



THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER I. 

BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIOD. 



SECTION I. 

B.C. 55.. A. D. 21. 

The Island op Great Britain, which contains England 
and Scotland, was originally peopled by Celtic tribes. Its 
valuable tin mines served as an introduction to trade with 
foreign countries, and the British islands were known by the 
name of " Cassiterides," or Tin Islands, for this reason. 
The Phoenicians were the first and most successful traders in 
this metal. The knowledge we possess of the early history 
of Great Britain is limited and obscure, and for even this we 
are indebted to the Romans. Julius Caesar, having subju- 
gated Gaul, and finding it necessary to employ his numerous 
troops, now flushed with conquest, turned his attention to 
these islands, hitherto known to Rome only by name. 

In the year 55 before Christ, Caesar disembarked a large 
army at Deal, in Kent. His landing was firmly disputed by 
the natives, but success attended the disciplined arms of the 
Roman general. After another victorious encounter, the ap- 
proach of winter induced him to secure his return to Gaul, 
by accepting such submission as was proposed by the Brit- 
ons. In the early part of the following year, Caesar, with a 
most formidable army, conveyed by a fleet of 800 ships, re- 
newed the attack. The Britons withdrew into their forests, 
whilst the Romans penetrated into the heart of the country, 
and advanced to that part of the Thames on which London 
is now situated. Their progress was bravely resisted ; the 



8 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

incessant activity and the rapid movements of the hardy na- 
tives severely tried the military qualities of the invaders. 
Cassibelan, a British chief, particularly distinguished him- 
self by his boldness and courage ; but genius and science 
maintained their usual superiority. The Britons were at last 
vanquished, and the chiefs having promised to pay tribute, 
the Romans withdrew, having gained victories which pro- 
duced no good results, and conquered a country which they 
could not retain. 

Britain, in the time of Caesar, was divided into a number of 
petty states, each of which was governed by subordinate 
chieftains, with absolute authority. On great emergencies, 
the chiefs united under one common leader, whose power 
was, however, limited and precarious. Hereditary right was 
recognized, even to female succession, but appear&Jiot to 
have been strictly observed. The ancient Britons were bar- 
barous in the extreme ; they lived in circular huts, with con- 
ical roofs, pierced in the center, for the purpose of admitting 
light, and discharging smoke ; they adorned their fingers and 
neck with rings and chains ; and painted and punctured 
their bodies, that their appearance might be more horrible in 
war. For the most part they were unacquainted with agri- 
culture ; they raised but little corn, subsisting principally on 
flesh and milk, and clothing themselves in the skins of ani- 
mals which had been killed for food. The only article of 
commerce they possessed was tin, which they exchanged for 
salt, earthenware, and brass. 

Their religion was a cruel and debasing superstition ; the 
priests were called Druids. They adored, under different 
names, the same gods as the Greeks and Romans, and to 
these they added a multitude of local deities. The Druids 
dwelt in huts or caverns in the silence of the forest, where, at 
midnight, they sacrificed to their gods. Human sacrifices 
were offered in times of danger ; at other periods the offerings 
were confined to beasts and the fruits of the earth. They 
taught the immortality of the soul, as well as its transmigra- 



THE ANCIENT BRITONS. 9 

tion. They were learned and ingenious, but believers and 
practicers in magic. From their office and attainments they 
exercised almost absolute sway overtheir countrymen. They 
were divided into three classes : the Bards, or the heroic 
historians ; the Yates, or sacred poets ; and the Druids, or 
ordinary priests. 

SECTION II. 
FROM A. D. 21—447. 
For nearly 100 years after the departure of Caesar, the Brit 
ons enjoyed almost uninterrupted independence. Britain 
was indeed threatened (a. d. 21) with invasion by Augustus, 
who thus extorted presents and tribute from the chiefs. Tibe- 
rius, pretending that the empire was already too extensive, 
was also satisfied with tribute. His nephew and successor, 
Caligula, (a. d. 36) meditated an attack on Britain, but was 
content to assemble an army, which he commanded to charge 
the ocean, and to collect its spoils — the shells on the beach — 
as proofs of victory. To perpetuate the memory of his folly, 
he erected a lofty beacon, and, returning to Rome, enjoyed the 
honor of a triumph, (a. d. 43.) The invasion was renewed 
by the emperor Claudius, with an army 50,000 strong, under 
the command of Plautius and Vespasian, who defeated the 
British king, Caradoc, or Caractacus, in three successive en- 
gagements, and deprived him of his dominions. This brave 
and gallant soldier, who had acquired a complete ascendency 
over the minds of his countrymen, continued for the space of 
nine years to oppose and annoy the Roman forces, but was at 
last defeated in a pitched battle fought in Shropshire, by Osto- 
rius Scapula ; his wife and family fell into the hands of the 
conqueror, and Caractacus himself was delivered in chains 
to Ostorius by his step mother, and conveyed to Rome to 
grace the triumph of the Roman general : whilst following in 
the procession, he appeared undaunted and erect, without 
displaying one suppliant look, or uttering one word imploring 
mercy. He addressed the emperor with such manly dignity, 



10 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

that Claudius, charmed with the boldness of his prisoner, 
pardoned him and his family, and commanded their chains to 
be immediately removed. 

The injustice done to the Iceni, and the indignities offered 
to their Queen, Boadicea, who had been publicly whipped 
and obliged to witness the violation of her daughters, drove 
the Britons to a general insurrection. The fury of these op- 
pressed people, under the standard of the queen, treated all 
as enemies who had not joined in the insurrection ; and sacri- 
ficed, to the goddess of victory, those who were spared in 
battle : 70,000 victims are supposed to have been slaugh- 
tered. Seutonius, the Roman general, succeeded in bringing 
the Britons to an action in open ground, where he could be 
attacked only in front. Thus situated, he disregarded the 
superiority of their numbers, collected in masses around their 
leaders. Their wives and daughters filled a long line of 
carriages in the rear, Boadicea herself, passing along the 
ranks of her army, entreated her countrymen to avenge her 
wrongs, and those of her daughters, who stood beside her in 
her chariot of war. The battle was long and fiercely main- 
tained, but ultimately the queen's troops were routed. The 
Romans granted no quarter, as the bodies of 80,000 British 
left dead on the field sufficiently testify. The fugitives, how- 
ever, offered to try again the fortune of war, but Boadicea 
refused to survive this defeat, and terminated her misfortunes 
by poison. The Roman historians compare this battle with 
the most glorious of ancient Rome, and Postumus, the com- 
mander of a legion not engaged, fell on his sword, grieved at 
losing his share in the victory. 

During the reigns of the Emperors Vespasian, Titus, and 
Domitian, the Roman dominion reached its utmost extent in 
Britain ; the natives being driven into the rugged and inhos- 
pitable regions beyond the Grampian hills. Julius Agricola, 
who commanded in Briton during these reigns, was a wise 
and prudent man, in whom capacity and vigor in war, were 
blended with moderation in civil life. 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 11 

The Roman power in Britain declined with the departure 
of Agricola. The constant invasions of the more southern 
divisions of the island by the Picts, the inhabitants of the 
eastern parts of Scotland, was an ever recurring source of 
weakness, whilst the declining power of Rome rendered the 
safe possession of her more important colonies difficult. 
Internal weakness, and a determination on the part of the 
Britons to assert their independence, rendered a continuance 
of Roman authority in Britain impossible; and after having 
been masters of nearly the whole island for 400 years, they 
vacated it under the Emperor Valentinian, having improved 
the ancient language, and cultivated the minds of the inhab- 
itants. The Romans, before abandoningjjie island, repaired 
the wall erected by Severus, built useful forts, and supplied 
the natives with military weapons. 

Christianity was introduced into Britain in the second cen- 
tury, and towards the close of that era had made considerable 
progress. The British Christians, except in the commence- 
ment of the fourth century, escaped the persecutions to which 
their continental brethren were exposed. Constantine the 
Great, who first established the christian religion in the Ro- 
man dominions, was a native of Britain. 



CHAPTER II. 

ANGLO-SAXON AND DANISH PERIOD. 



SECTION I. 

FROM A. D. 447— 871. 
After the evacuation of Britain by the Romans, the south- 
ern part of the island relapsed into a state of barbarism. 
The inhabitants soon lost even those arts in which their for- 
mer masters had instructed them ; for the Picts and Scots 
having partially destroyed the northern wall, they were una- 
ble to repair it. These new invaders having opened a passage 



12 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

into the fertile lands of England, became more formidable 
than the Roman conquerors ; and the affrighted Britons re- 
tired in every direction before them into the forests, or eked 
out a miserable existence in the mountains. 

The Britons, thus harrassed and enfeebled, unable to defend 
themselves, were compelled to call on some neighboring 
power for aid. The insular position of Britain rendered it 
necessary to seek assistance from a people who were pos- 
sessed of naval power. This they found among the Saxons, 
a nation of Gothic origin, and at this time formidable to the 
surrounding nations of Germany ; they are described as brave, 
daring and cruel, despising danger, inured to hardship, and 
eager to purchase booty at the risk of their lives ; they de- 
lighted in sudden and unexpected aggressions, and were con- 
sidered the most formidable of all the German states. Of 
gigantic stature, combined with great strength of body and 
patience of fatigue, they declared war to be the only proper 
business of men. Such is the outline of the people who were 
invited, in 449, by Vortigern (whom, in the hour of their 
distress, the Britons had elected king), to fight his battles, 
and protect him as well from foreign enemies, as his own sub- 
jects. Fifteen hundred Saxons, under the command of 
Hengist and Horsa, accepted the invitation. They marched 
(a. d. 450) against the Picts, and in the course of six years, 
obliged them to retreat into the most northern parts of the 
island. 

The Saxons, pleased with the fertility of the soil, invited 
additional forces from the continent, and turned their arms 
upon the Britons, who then in vain opposed them. Hengist 
became the first Saxon king of Kent. Although the early 
contests of the Saxons with the British, were principally con- 
fined to Kent, they were long and bitter, and religion added 
fuel to the strife ; the Saxons being Pagans, and the Britons 
Christians. It was not, however, until about the commence- 
ment of the sixth century (a. d. 519) that Cerdic, at the 
head of the West Saxons, subdued the western part of the 



ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 13 

island, in a series of battles, in which he was resisted by 
the valiant prince Arthur. The Saxons pursued their de- 
signs with courage and determination, until, within 150 
years from their landing, they had conquered the entire prov- 
ince, with the exception of Wales and Cornwall, and estab- 
lished in it (a. d. 585) seven different kingdoms, which were 
styled the Saxon Heptarchy. 

For nearly two hundred years from the date of the Hep- 
tarchy, England appears to have been a scene of complete 
confusion and riot, and was divided amongst a number 01 
petty princes who waged war against each other, and en- 
slaved the ancient inhabitants. The re-introduction (a. d. 
596) of Christianity, by St. Augustine, but slightly alleviated 
this state of affairs ; the spread of the Christian faith, however, 
was rapid, and a century after that Saint's arrival, it was 
professed and believed throughout Anglo-Saxon Britain. 

The history of this dark period is as uncertain as it is re- 
volting to human feelings ; it is sufficient to know, that, after 
various changes and revolutions in the Heptarchy, Egbert, 
King of Wessex, partly by conquest, and partly by inherit- 
ance, became the first sole monarch of England, having been 
crowned before a general council of the nation assembled 
(a. d. 800) at Winchester, and justified, by his prudence and 
wisdom, the assumption of regal power. Egbert confirmed 
or revived the name of England, given to south Britain, and 
he died a. d. 838. 

During the two governments of Ethelwolf, the son of Eg- 
bert, and of Ethelwolf 's son, English history is little more 
than an account of their atrocities, relieved by the annual 
descents, on the coast, of a race of pirates, of Scandinavian 
origin, under the command of chieftains, called Vekingr, or 
Sea Kings. These people, the Danes of future history, after 
pillaging the coast, where they landed, returned with the spoil 
to their own country, to prepare for fresh expeditions. The 
customs of the Britons, and those introduced by the Romans, 
were now no longer to be seen ; the ancient language was 



14 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 

discontinued, and the Saxon only spoken. The kingdom 
was divided into districts, and Saxon laws and institutions 
every where prevailed. 

SECTION II. 
FROM A. D. 871—901. 
During the short reign of Ethelred, the third son of Egbert, 
the Danes, with a considerable army, invaded England. 
Ethelred, after a series of battles, received his death wound 
in an engagement at Marden, in Wiltshire, and was suc- 
ceeded by his youngest brother, Alfred, to the prejudice of 
the children of his eldest brother. 

At the accession of Alfred to the throne, Northumberland 
and East Anglia were in possession of the Danes, who had 
also advanced into Wessex, as far as Reading. To foreign 
foes was added the danger of internal dissentions ; the Mer- 
cians openly opposed Alfred, while the English of other 
provinces, from repeated disasters, had become dispirited, 
and were more disposed to purchase peace by gold, than 
secure it by arms. Commerce and agriculture were in a de- 
plorable state ; the religious establishments had been pillaged 
and destroyed by the ruthless invaders, and the whole coun- 
try appeared to be at the mercy of the Danes. In this season 
of desolation and distress, arose Alfred the Great, a warrior 
intended to save his country from destruction, and a legisla- 
tor who laid the basis of English liberty. 

This greatest of princes, the fourth son of Ethelwolf, was 
born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 849, and ascended the 
throne in 871. Distinguished as a child by his beauty, viva- 
city and playfulness, he is said to have received the earlier 
part of his education under the direction of Pope Leo, in 
Rome, whither he was carried by his father, although his 
step-mother had the honor of first awakening in his mind a 
passion for learning. Holding in her hands a volume of 
Anglo-Saxon poems, in which the splendid illustrations de- 
lighted her husband's children, she offered it as a reward to 



ALFRED. 15 

the first whose proficiency should enable him to read it to 
her — and thus the emulation of Alfred being excited, he ran 
to his master, and soon returned to claim his prize. 

On the death of his brother, Alfred was inclined, alleging 
his own incapacity and the increasing number of the Danes, 
to refuse the crown; his objections were happily overruled, 
and immediately after his coronation he took the field against 
the national enemy. With the few troops he was able to 
collect on an emergency, Alfred attacked the Danes, and, 
after a desperate conflict, was defeated. The new generalf 
however, struck terror into the victors, and on his offering to 
hazard another battle, the Danes proposed a negotiation, 
which ende 1 in their promising to evacuate Wessex, and 
retire to London. Treacherous as well as cruel, they refused 
to fulfill these conditions, and Alfred, overpowered by a 
Danish combination, and deserted by his troops, was obliged 
to seek safety in flight. 

Alfred having in vain attempted to rouse his subjects to a 
sense of what they owed their country, established himself, 
with a few noble Saxons, in the centre of a morass, in a spot 
still called the Isle of Althelney, where he remained seem- 
ingly forgotten and deserted. At one period of his conceal- 
ment, he disguised himself as a peasant, and lived as servant 
with a cow-herd, in Somersetshire, by whose wife he was 
roughly reproved for neglecting the toasting of her cakes. 
Even in this disguise he attempted to revive the spirit of his 
followers, by striking blows at small parties of the enemy. 
He is said, in the disguise of a harper, to have gained admis- 
sion to the camp of the enemy ; and thus having ascertained 
the sources of their weakness and their strength, he turned 
the information so acquired to his own advantage. 

On the news of some slight successes by the Earl of De 
von, Alfred, emerging from his fastnesses, was received with 
enthusiasm by his oppressed people, who flocked in such 
numbers to his standard, as enabled him to force the camp 
of the enemy, during a carouse, and gain a complete victory. 



16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Guthrun, the Danish chief, with the survivors, shortly after 
wards surrendered themselves as prisoners, and the country, 
from the Thames to the Ouse, again received Alfred as its 
king. He pardoned and released the Danish commander and 
soldiers, on condition of their becoming Christians, and sub- 
mitting to baptism, a stipulation most humiliating to the 
haughty invaders. London being subdued, England once 
more enjoyed the blessings of peace, which lasted for fifteen 
years after the restoration. By means of a fleet, he kept the 
Danes under proper subjection, and suppressed all attempts 
at invasion. The universal repose of the latter part of his 
reign was disturbed by an invasion conducted by Hastings, 
the most renowned of piratical heroes; this, however, he 
repelled, and liberated the wife and family of the daring 
freebooter, whom he had taken prisoners. Alfred died after 
a glorious reign of thirty years, in the fifty-third year of his 
age, at Oxford, on the 26th of October, 901, leaving two sons 
and three daughters. 

Alfred. has been justly called by Milton " the mirror oi 
princes ;" unlike other great monarchs, he was not only great 
in the remote age in which he lived, but would have been 
accounted a prodigy in any age or country. He is the chief 
ornament of English history; and from his reign, Englishmen 
have ever dated the prosperity and happiness of their coun- 
try, and look upon him with reverence as the founder ol 
their liberty. Alfred was learned beyond the age in which 
he lived ; though a poet, his love of the ornamental did not 
blind him to the dignity of the useful arts ; he invented wax 
can. lies, marked with circular lines to measure time ; he was 
the improver of ship-building, and the founder of the British 
navy. He promulgated a body of laws, which even now form 
the bulwark of our freedom ; he instituted juries, divided 
England into hundreds and tithings, regulated the militia, in- 
troduced building with brick and stone, founded the Univer- 
sity of Oxford, and invited learned men from foreign parts to 
resort thither. He composed several works, some of which 



SAXON KINGS. lY 

have descended to us. He gave away half of his revenues 
in charity, and distributed his time so as to allot eight hours 
every day to devotion, eight hours to business, and as many 
to sleep, study, and refreshment. He regretted the deficiency 
of learned works in Saxon literature, and undertook himself 
to remedy the evil : for this purpose, he translated the Eccle- 
siastical History of the Venerable Bede, the Epitome of Oro- 
sius on Ancient History, and the Consolations of Philosophy, 
by Boethius. 

SECTION III. 
FROM A. D. 901—975. 
Alfred was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward the Elder, 
a monarch every way worthy to wield the sceptre of his father. 
He enjoyed a prosperous reign of twenty-four years, and died 
in a. d. 917. On the death of his father, Athelstan ascended 
the throne — the illegitimacy of his birth is unsupported by 
adequate testimony ; he reigned sixteen years, and became 
sovereign of all England. He was a bold ambitious man, 
against whose authority his subjects rebelled ; they were, 
however, defeated by his activity. He consolidated the power 
of his kingdom at home, and extended it abroad. Athelstan 
died at Gloucester, a. d. 941. In his reign, the Bible was first 
translated into the Saxon language. 

Edmund I, son of Edward the elder, was the next king; 
there is little worthy of remark in his reign, except that capi- 
tal punishments were instituted to put down robbers, who had 
greatly increased, and by the hand of one of whom he was 
slain at a festival in Gloucestershire, in the eighth year of his 
reign, a. d. 948. The reign of Edred, who succeeded his 
brother, is principally distinguished by the final subjugation 
of North'land, and his entrusting the entire government of the 
kingdom to monks. Edwy, the son of Edmund, on the death 
of his uncle, ascended the throne ; his whole reign was a con- 
test with the power of the monks, under the direction of Dun- 
ston. Abbot of Glastonbury, who attempted to reduce England 



18 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

to a mere inheritance for the clergy. Dunstan and his ad- 
herents, by the aid of pretended miracles, obliged Edwy to 
resign the fairest portion of his dominions to his brother Edgar, 
and content himself with the kingdom of Wessex. Edwy's 
humiliation was not of long endurance, as he died (a. d. 959) 
ere he attained manhood, and was buried at Winchester. 

A. D. 959, Edgar succeded his brother Edwy in all his 
dominions, at the age of sixteen, and became a tool in the 
hands of Dunstan, whom he made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
He maintained a brilliant court, where, at one time, eight 
kings resided : during his reign he adopted every means cal- 
culated to increase the comforts or the security of his people : 
the line arts were encouraged — and corrupt magistrates, by 
legal enactments, restrained from their mal-practices. Edgar 
was cruti, devoted to pleasure, and the gratification of his 
passions. He died in the sixteenth year of his reign, leaving 
two sons and a daughter, and was buried in Glastonbury 
church. The defects of Edgar's government fell upon his 
successors, the power of the monks increased, and that of the 
State was diminished in proportion ; the provision for the 
safety of the State began to decline, and a road was opened for 
the ambition of the Danes, who began to make fresh incursions 
and exact exhorbitant tribute. 

SECTION IV. 
FROM A. D. 957—1042. 
On the death of Edgar, the succession to the crown was dis- 
puted by his two sons. Edward II, the elder, was however 
finally established on the throne, through the influence of 
Dunstan. His reign was chiefly occupied with disputes, which 
had long disturbed the peace of the kingdom, between the 
secular and monastic orders of the clergy. The monks now 
gained a complete victory over the seculars, who were expelled 
from their convents. After a short reign of three years, 
Edward was murdered by the orders of the Queen Dowager. 
In a hunting p\cursion, unattended, he visited Corfe Castle, 



ETHELRED II. 19 

in Dorsetshire, where the Queen resided with his brother, and 
was received with the utmost cordiality ; requesting some 
refreshment, he was stabbed by a domestic in the act of drink- 
ing ; finding himself wounded, the king put spurs to his horse, 
but soon becoming exhausted fell from his saddle, and was 
dragged along the earth until he died. (a. d. 978). From 
the violence of his death, he was surnamed the Martyr. 

Edward was succeeded by his brother, Ethelred II, called 
the Unready. He ascended the throne in his youth, and ap- 
pears never to have displayed any strength of mind. He was 
the unconscious cause of, and deeply lamented, his brother's 
death. The Danes, after an intermission of nearly sixty years, 
in this reign, again invaded England, and Ethelred, finding 
himself unable to oppose them, compounded for his safety. 
In the year 994, Sweyne, king of Denmark, and Olave, king 
of Norway, made a fresh incursion, with a large army, and 
ravaged the country. Ethelred, by a bribe, purchased peace 
with Olave, but Sweyne continued to occupy the country, in 
which his forces, in course of time, almost became naturalized. 
Ethelred, having strengthened himself by an alliance with the 
Duke of Normandy, laid a scheme for massacring the Danes. 
This detestable act, which arose Oiit of mischievous policy, 
was carried into execution on the Festival of St. Bride's, Nov. 
1002, when all the Danes in the kingdom were destroyed in one 
day, among the rest, the sister of Sweyne, who was beheaded in 
Ethelred's presence. The details of this bloody affair are hor- 
rible in the extreme ; such atrocities, however, seldom go un- 
punished. Sweyne immediately returned to England, and 
inflicted terrible vengeance forthe slaughter of his countrymen, 
obliging Ethelred (a. d. 1013) to retire to Normandy with his 
family, and he proclaimed himself king. After having oppressed 
his new subjects with a heavy tax, forthe payment of his Danish 
troops. Sweyne died suddenly (a. d. 1014); whereupon Ethel- 
red was recalled by the English, while Canute, Sweyne's son, 
was proclaimed king by the Danes. Ethelred died in 1016, 

leaving his son, Edmund, to contest the crown with Canute. 
1* 



20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Edmund II, called Ironside, during his short reign of a few 
months, gave proofs of bravery and ability, equal to any exi- 
gency, and worthy of a better fortune ; but Canute, gaining 
several signal victories over his forces, peace was agreed upon, 
and England was divided between the rivals : the north being 
given up to Canute, while the south was awarded to Edmund. 
On the untimely death of the latter, supposed to have been 
occasioned by poison, the former entered into peaceable pos- 
session of the whole kingdom, (a.d. 1016, Nov. 30). 

Canute was only twenty years of age, when he thus became 
king of England ; his qualities as a monarch were of a high 
order. Historians, from the extent of his dominions (being 
at once king of England, Denmark, and Norway), have given 
him the title of Canute the Great. He divided the kingdom 
into four portions, and ordained several wholesome laws. 
During the latter part of his life, he was remarkable for jus- 
tice, humanity, and religion. On a particular occasion, being 
desirous of showing his courtiers how little he deserved the 
exaggerated praise with which they loaded him, he ordered a 
chair to be brought, and, seating himself on the sea-shore, 
near Southampton, when the tide was about to flow, he thus 
addressed the sea: "0 Sea, thou art under my dominion, and 
the land which 1 sit upon is mine ; I charge thee approach no 
further, nor dare to wet the feet of thy sovereign ;" the tide 
however flowing as usual, he read his flatterers a lecture on 
the weakness of earthly kings, when compared with the power 
of the Supreme Being who rules the elements. On his return 
after this incident to Winchester, he took the crown from his 
head, and placing it on the great crucifix in the cathedral, 
never again assumed that mark of royalty. Canute died at 
Shaftesbury, in 1035, and was buried at Winchester. His 
eldest son, Sweyne, was crowned king of Norway, while his 
younger sons, Harold and Hardicanute, became, respectively, 
kings of England and Denmark. 

Harold Harefoot, and Hardicanute, the Danish successors 
of their father, were unworthy of him ; the first is remarkable 



EDWARD III. 21 

for his virtue, and the latter for his avarice and cruelty. 
They reigned six years : on the death of Hardicanute (a. d. 
1042), the people, both Danes and English, oppressed by 
their last monarch, received with joy, as their king, Edward, 
the surviving son of Ethelred, of the Saxon race. The law- 
ful heir of the Saxon line, was the son of Edmund Ironside, 
who was an exile in Hungary. Although the dominion of 
the Danes in England continued for above two hundred 
years, they introduced no change of laws, customs, language 
or religion ; in fact, they appear to have easily amalgamated 
themselves with the people whom they had conquered. 

SECTION V. 

FROM A. D. 1042—1066. 

Edward III, surnamed the Confessor, on account of his piety, 
during the period of the Danish dynasty, was brought up and 
resided in Normandy, at the court of the monarchs of that 
state, and in some measure, adopted the language and learn- 
ing of that country. He was about forty years of age when 
called to the throne of England ; although a temperate, 
moderate, and devout man, he was a good, rather than a 
great king : his religion was debased by superstition, and his 
moderation rendered useless by want of firmness and decision. 
His administration was not his own, he was the mere instru- 
ment of the factions, who in turn took possession of his per- 
son, and ruled his mind. Having no children, Godwin, Earl 
of Kent, by whose interest Edward came to the throne, exerted 
all his influence to establish his own son, Harold, as successor 
to the crown. This too powerful subject feigned to be dis- 
pleased at the royal favor shown to the Norman nobility, and 
rebelled. Edward, grown old, and naturally indolent, entered 
into negotiation with Godwin, who, by degrees, obtained the 
authority he contended for, and had power sufficient to secure 
the succession in his own family. Edward died in the 
twenty-fourth year of his reign, on the 4th of January, 1066, 
and was interred in his own town church of St. Peter's, at 



22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Westminster. Edward's aversion to taxation, and his char- 
ities, endeared him to his people. His queen was one of the 
most beautiful women of her time, but Edward, as a penance 
for his sins, abstained altogether from her society. 

Harold, the son of Godwin, was, immediately on the death 
of Edward, proclaimed king, in an assembly of the nobles 
of Edward's court and of the citizens of London. Harold's 
troubles commenced with his reign ; he had scarcely ascended 
the throne, when he was called to suppress an insurrection, 
caused by his elder brother, who claimed the crown. The 
joy occasioned by his speedy suppression of this rebellion, 
and his victory over the Norwegian invaders of Northumber- 
land, was interrupted by information that William, Duke of 
Normandy, having landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, with an 
army of disciplined veterans, laid claim to the English crown. 

This prince was a natural son of Robert, the renowned 
duke of Normandy, by Arlitte, a beautiful maid of Falaize, 
with whom Robert fell in love, in passing through that town. 
William, the offspring of this amour, owed his success and 
fortunes chiefly to his great merits ; he was vigorous, courage- 
ous and wise. His father in his old age became superstitious, 
and resolved, by way of penance, to pay a visit to the holy 
sepulchre of Jerusalem. Robert, in despite of the entreaties 
of his court, persisted in this design, and having exacted 
homage and fealty, from the nobles, to William, then a child, 
and placed him under the tutelage of the French king, 
departed for Asia, where he shortly died, leaving his son the 
inheritor of his wishes rather than his crown. This young 
soldier, with uncommon fortitude and bravery, overcame the 
difficulties attending a disputed title and a distracted state 
and became undisputed possessor of the duchy of Normandy 

William, on the accession of Harold, asserted that, during 
a visit at his court, Edward the Confessor had bequeathed ta 
him the crown of England, adding, that Harold himself had 
when shipwrecked on the coast of France, sworn fealty, and 
promised to assist him in the succession ; the Saxon kin/i 



HAROLD. 23 

replied, when reminded of his oath, that it had been extorted 
from him by force ; and a promise to give a crown which did 
not belong to him, could not be binding ; and as he had been 
elected king by the free suffrages of the people, when it 
came to the trial, he would prove himself worthy of their 
choice. 

William, in addition to twenty-four thousand* of the 
choicest soldiers of Europe, brought over with him a Bull 
from the Pope in favor of his claim. He advanced his 
troops from Pevensey to Hastings, to procure provisions. 
Harold, apprised of his arrival, hastened to attack him ; 
flushed with his late success, he deemed himself invincible ; 
by his avarice, in appropriating to himself the spoils of his 
victory over the Norwegians, he lost a considerable portion 
of his army by desertion, and wantonly staked, the freedom 
of his country, on the exertions of raw and. undisciplined 
troops. William's forces, long familiar with conquest, and 
confident in the capacity of their leader, consisted of the 
flower of the continent ; the subjects of other princes, attracted 
by the fame of his name, had voluntarily enlisted in his service. 
He is reported to have offered, the day before the battle, to 
decide the quarrel by single combat, or by appeal to the 
Pope ; both of which Harold refused, leaving it to the God 
of armies to decide between them. Both armies that night 
pitched their camp in sight of each other. William and his 
soldiers passed the evening in devotion, while songs and 
revelry resounded through the camp of Harold. 

The spot chosen by Harold for this important conflict, 
which was to decide the fate of the kingdom, was an eminence 
called Sentac, about nine miles inland from Hastings. It 
was open toward the South, and was sheltered at the back, 
by an extensive wood; on the declivity, the troops were 
posted in one compact mass, in the centre of which floated 
the royal standard, and the figure of a warrior studded with 



•The troops of William have been estimated at various numbers, from 
twenty-four thousand to sixty thousand. 



24 nrsTORY of England. 

gold and jewels. By its side were Harold and his brothers 
who, like the soldiers, fought on foot On the opposite hill 
stood William in front of his troops, the sacred banner of 
the Pope waving by his side. 

About nine o'clock in the morning of the 14th of October, 
10GG, William, after a short address to animate his followers, 
raised the Norman war-cry, of " God is our help," which 
was responded to by " Christ's Rood the holy Rood" from 
the English ranks. The impetuous onset of the Normans 
was received by the English with firmness on their battle- 
axes, with which they broke the lances and cut the coats of 
mail of their opponents. The Normans began to waver, and 
the left wing giving way, the English pursued, but William, 
by great exertion, succeeded in rallying the fugitives ; the 
attack was renewed, and again repelled. Artifice succeeded 
where valor had failed. By a feigned flight William allured 
a body of English from their strong position, and whilst they 
too eagerly pursued, he turned upon them with his cavalry, 
and cut them in pieces. This stratagem was twice adopted 
with complete success. Still the main body of the English 
presented an unbroken rampart of shields, against which 
Norman valor and discipline fought in vain. 

During the conflict both leaders gave proofs of undaunted 
courage and great skill. William had three horses killed 
under him, and hand to hand he had fought on foot with his 
adversaries. Harold had also animated his followers, and 
displayed a courage worthy of the prize for which he con- 
tended. A little before sunrise^, Harold — his brothers having 
already fallen — received an arrow in the eye, which penetrated 
the brain. He instantly fell, and the knowledge of his death 
relaxed the efforts of the English : their lines were penetrated, 
their standard taken, panic seized them, and they fled, leaving 
William of Normandy conqueror of England. 

The body of Harold was demanded by his mother for inter, 
ment, and William having granted the request, the monks 
were unable to distinguish it among the slain. In this 



HAROLD. 



25 



emergency they sent for Harold's mistress, Editha, sumamed 
" the Fair," who, with the keen eye of affection, soon recog- 
nized the remains of her lover. The corpse was interred in 
Waltham Church with regal honors. 

Thus ended the Saxon dominion in England, after contin- 
uing 600 years. The precise nature of the Saxon government 
is not known, but sufficient appears, to perceive, in these 
distant times, the basis of the present constitution of the 
British Empire, though in a rude chaotic state. The mon- 
archy was supreme, but not'absolute, and for the most part 
hereditary. In the kings was vested the exercise of the exec- 
utive power, but entrusted to them only in conjunction with 
their Witten-a- Gemote,* or council of wise men. The powers 
of the Witten-a-Gemote appear to have been extensive, as 
we find they expelled one of their kings for disregarding 
their advice. The administration of justice among the Sax- 
ons was conducted by the people themselves, in a series ot 
courts, rising in regular gradations, over which some person 
of station, wisdom and authority presided. The principles 
of local self-government, and non-interference with the 
people, except in cases of necessity, pervade all their insti- 
tutions. 

The language of the Saxons long survived their political 
influence, and even now forms the basis of the English tongue. 
The literature of the Saxons has a great resemblance to their 
institutions and laws : it is peculiarly national, and appears 
not to have been derived from any foreign sources. 



This latter remark is true of their poetry alone. For their 
prose has no special claim to originality, consisting, as it does, 
for the most part, of translations from the Latin. The Eng- 
land of those days owed most of her learned men to the 
instruction of Ireland, which long continued to be the resort 



* Alfred the Great, in the Code which he drew up for the use of the nation, 
concludes thus — "Then I, Alfred, shewed these to my Wetten, and then 
they said they were all willing to observe them." 



26 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

of studious Saxon youth ; while the northern part of the 
kingdom was not less indebted to the missionaries of Iona. 
The most remarkable Saxon poems are Beowulf, the fragment 
on the battle of Finsborough, and the Scriptural paraphrases 
of Caedmon : and the greatest author in the language is king 
Alfred. 

Anglo-Saxon society was divided into three castes : first, 
the royal family and relationship ; second, the nobility, or 
eorls; and, thirdly, the laboring class, or ceorls, who were 
regarded by the land-owners as their property ; though they 
were not bondmen in any other sense than that of being 
obliged to confine their services to the estate, on which they 
were born. There was, also, a fourth class, though not so 
accounted in Saxon law, consisting of the theovjes, or slaves: 
not a foreign, or inferior race, or one reduced by war ; but 
men and women of their own blood and kindred, whom they 
held and traded in as domestic animals. 

The Romans had brought British agriculture to a high 
degree of excellence, and, under their rule, its products were 
often to be found in the market of the imperial capital ; but, 
in Saxon hands, it never yielded more than enough for home 
consumption. They " were graziers rather than plowmen." 

Although at the time of their settlement in Britain, the 
Saxons were accustomed to the sea, they afterwards almost 
entirely abandoned that element. King Alfred was the first 
to revive the naval enterprise of his countrymen : and so 
much success followed his efforts, that under Edgar and 
Ethelred II, their navy is said, with evident hyperbole, how- 
ever, to have exceeded three thousand sail ; and their trade, 
both coasting and foreign was in quite a prosperous state. 
Their principal exports were tin, lead, articles of gold and 
silver, and slaves. 

In the arts of common life they were little in advance of 
other northwestern nations of that time : and the only fine 
art in which they excelled was that of illuminating books. 



WILLIAM I. 27 

CHAPTER III. 

WILLIAM I. 

Born 1027— Began to reign 1066— Died 1087— Reigned 21 years. 

William, whose surname was now changed from The Bastard 
to The Conqueror, after the battle of Hastings, marched with 
his army towards London, carrying before him a standard 
blessed by the Pope, to which the clergy quickly resorted. 
At Berkhampstead, deputations from the nobles, the clergy 
and the principal citizens of London, swore allegiance to the 
conqueror, gave hostages, and made him an offer of the crown, 
which he accepted. He postponed his entry into London 
until he built a place of safety, which is now the Tower of 
London. He was crowned in Westminster Abbey on Christ- 
mas day, 1066, by Aldred, archbishop of York, Stigand, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, having been suspended from his sacred 
office. On this occasion William took the coronation oath 
of the Anglo-Saxon kings ; proving, in the commencement of 
his reign, that he relied more for his right to the crown on the 
choice or approbation of the nation, than on the conquest he 
had made. 

William proceeded to secure the prize he had thus won, 
by rewarding his Norman Barons ; he divided amongst them 
the lands of the nobility and gentry who had opposed him 
at the battle of Hastings, thus giving his followers an interest 
in the dominions he had acquired. He extended his favor to 
those among the English who had been neutral, and greatly 
encouraged intermarriages between them and his followers : 
he endeavored to engage the affections of the people by not 
disturbing them in their possessions, and by continuing 
their ancient laws and tribunals, to which they were 
greatly attached. He confirmed the privileges granted by the 
Confessor to the citizens of London. Though thus courting 
the good will of the English, he did not neglect to provide 
against a change of feeling ; he built strong castles through- 



28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

out the Island, garrisoned them with Norman soldiers, and 
deprived the land-owner of those arms, the possession of 
which was imperative under the Saxon laws. William com- 
pounded with Edgar Atheling, the Saxon heir to the throne, 
and having securely established his dominion, revisited, in 
March 1067, his paternal kingdom. 

During his absence a conspiracy was" formed among the 
English, to inflict vengeance on the Normans similar to that 
which their fathers had wreaked on the Danes. William 
hastily returned from his continental possessions in December, 
and the plot was defeated. In the following year (1069), 
however, an insurrection broke out in Northumberland ; the 
rebels called in the assistance of the Danes, and were joined 
by Edgar and the English malcontents. The insurgents suc- 
cessfully attacked York ; but William hastening to the north, 
they were conquered and destroyed. The previous modera- 
tion of William now deserted him, and he adopted a system 
of revenge which has covered his name with infamy. The 
king swore to extirpate the natives of Northumberland, and 
to render desolate the country between his Normans and 
their enemies, which vow he faithfully performed. " From 
York* to Durham, not an inhabited village remained. Fire, 
slaughter and desolation, made it a vast wilderness," which, 
adds an historian sixty years after, f " it continues to this 
day." The streets and roads were covered with human 
bodies, and the number of victims is said to have exceeded 
100,000. 

From this period, the reign of William was a series of 
continual oppressions towards the English, whom he removed 
from all places of trust : he imposed military service on the 
clergy, and seized on all the money and plate found in the 
religious houses, which had hitherto been the only places of 
safe deposit. He separated the ecclesiastical from the civil 
judicature, introduced the feudal system, the game and forest 

• Northumberland included all England north of the Humber. 
t William of Malmesbury. 



WILLIAM I. 29 

laws, commanded all law proceedings to be made in the 
Norman language, which he also ordered to be taught in the 
schools. The English were deprived of their arms, and, on 
the sound of the curfew bell, at eight o'clock in the evening, 
were forbidden to have lights in their houses ; their posses- 
sions were also registered in a book called Doomsday Book ; 
they paid a tax of six shillings for every hide of land ; the 
inhabitants of the hundred in which a Norman was killed, 
were fined in a large sum of money. The inhabitants and 
buildings of a district of Hampshire were removed, and the 
country planted as a forest for the royal chase, which is still 
known as the New Forest. He removed those bishops whom 
he suspected to be attached to the Saxon dynasty, and filled 
the sees with his own friends. Notwithstanding these unjust 
proceedings, the nation is indebted to William for many 
beneficial enactments, particularly his confining the' power of 
the clergy to sacred matters, the abolition of trials by ordeal 
and single combat, the institution of new law courts, and the 
appointment of Justices of the Peace. He had the courage, 
in a priest-ridden age, to oppose the ambitious views of Pope 
Gregory VI!., better known as the Monk Hildebrand, to 
whom he refused to do homage, and by an edict forbade his 
subjects to acknowledge any Pope, or to receive orders from 
Rome, without his sanction. 

In 1076, the Conqueror was called over to Normandy to 
suppress the revolt of Robert Curthore, his eldest son. Rob- 
ert, on the subjugation of England, demanded Normandy 
from his father, alleging a promise to that effect : " I shall 
not undress until I am going to bed," was William's reply. 
Hostilities commenced, and, being fomented by Philip, of 
France, lasted several years, and were terminated only by a 
romantic adventure. Robert, beseiged in the Castle of Gor- 
beroi, engaged a knight in complete armor, and unhorsed 
him, wounding him in the hand : he recognized, when about 
to kill his fallen antagonist, the voice of his father. Robert, 
falling on his knees, embraced the old king, and implored 



30 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

pardon ; William, however, inflamed with anger, cursed hi3 
repentant son. Through the entreaties of Matilda, his wife, 
a reconciliation and peace were effected. 

As William advanced in years, he became excessively 
corpulent, and, to reduce his bulk, underwent a long course 
of medicine. Hearing of this, Philip, of France, said to his 
courtiers, that the King of England was lying-in of a big 
belly at Rouen; this coarse jest being to told William, bursting 
into a paroxysm of rage, he swore that at his churching he 
would set all France in a blaze. He immediately declared 
war against Philip : in the course of which he burnt the town 
of Mante, and galloping among the smouldering ruins, his 
horse, having trod on some embers, plunged, threw the king 
on the pummel of the saddle, and produced a rupture, from 
the effects of which, six weeks afterwards, William died, at 
Rouen, in Normandy, on the 9th of September, 1087, aged 
sixty- four. His remains having been neglected by his family 
and courtiers, were interred by the monks, in the Abbey of 
Caen, built by himself. The recollection of the wrongs 
inflicted on England, stung the conscience of the monarch 
deeply when dying: shortly before he expired, he ordered 
several prisoners in England to be released, and restitution to 
be made to the sufferers. On his death be 1, he bequeathed 
Normandy and its dependencies to Robert — expressing an 
ardent wish that England should fall to the lot of his second 
son, and predicting that Henry, the third son, would inherit 
the fortunes of his brothers. William was unhappy in his 
family, his children being disobedient and quarrelsome. He 
had five daughters and fbur sons, one of the latter was killed 
when young, hunting in the New Forest. 

William was of ordinary stature, with a stern and ferocious 
countenance, possessing great strength, he was courageous, 
vigilant, active, and prudent, but covetous and cruel ; his 
glories are stained with blood, and his memory tarnished 
by the Northumbrian massacre. 



CHAPTER IV. 

WILLIAM II. 

Born 1057— Began to reign 1087— Died 1100— Reigned 13 years. 

William, surnaftied Rufus, or " the Red," from his complex- 
ion, hastened to England, from the bed of the dying monarch, 
to secure that throne which his father's wishes had bestowed 
on him, and was crowned on the 29th September, 1087. 

Odo, Earl of Kent, prompted by jealousy of Lanfranc, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, who, on the accession of William, 
had rendered him essential service, attempted to dethrone 
the king, and set up his brother Robert; the king applied to 
the English, and was energetically supported by them. He 
obliged his opponents to fly or submit to his authority, carried 
the war into Normandy, and imposed hard conditions of 
peace on Robert. 

William, on his accession, having seized upon the late 
king's treasures, valued at £60,000, his younger brother, 
Prince Henry, took up arms against him for his share: he 
was however driven by William into a fortress in Normandy, 
and submitted. Robert accompanied the king to England ; 
and it was agreed between the brothers, that the survivor 
should succeed to the dominions of the other. Fresh quarrels 
soon arose between these brothers — new invasions of Nor- 
mandy followed — each of which enriched William, while it 
impoverished the imprudent Robert. William, after his suc- 
cess against his brother, reduced Wales to temporary obedi- 
ence, and invaded Scotland, and slew Malcolm, king of the 
country. 

The Christian Church had always looked on pilgrimages 
to the Sepulchre of our Saviour at Jerusalem as acceptable 
worship, and encouraged them accordingly. The Holy Land 
was at this time in possession of the Turks, whose attach- 
ment to Mahometanism was only equalled by their detestation 
of Christianity ; and they accordingly treated the pilgrims 



32 HIETORY OF ENDLAND. 

who resorted to that sacred place with unheard-of cruelties 
and ignominy. Peter, a hermit of Picardy, a man of ardent 
and enthusiastic temperament, had been an eye-witness of 
the inhuman manner in which the Christians were used by 
the Mussulmen. On his return to Europe, he traveled bare- 
headed and bare-foot from court to court, to inspire the 
Princes of Christendom with a zeal for the recovery of the 
Holy Land. He painted in simple and unaffected language 
the sufferings of the pilgrims, and inflamed the zeal of all 
ranks. The Pope, Urban II, at the council of Clermont, 
excited, with eloquence adapted to his hearers, the sovereigns 
of Europe to take up arms against the bands of robbers who 
oppressed Palestine. The war-like spirit of the age was 
roused in favor of religion ; innumerable persons of all 
degrees and nations embraced the cause, and put on the 
badge of their profession — the Red Cross. Thus originated 
those wars known as The Crusades. 

Robert, Duke of Normandy, was one of the earliest pros- 
elytes to the sacred cause, and one of the most illustrious 
leaders of the Christian army. In order to defray the neces- 
sary charges of so expensive an undertaking, Robert mort- 
gaged to William his Duchy for three years, for the sum of 
ten thousand marks, which he raised by taxation ; the pos 
session of his brother's dominions had long been the leading 
object of the king's ambition, and he accordingly entered 
Normandy. 

William's government of England was most oppressive to 
his people. Avaricious and mean, he plundered the country 
without mercy, and enriched his favorites. He kept several 
bishoprics vacant, that he might enjoy the revenues; the see 
of Canterbury, among others, was vacant at his death. 

His voluptuous and rapacious career was suddenly arrested 
by a violent death. On the 2d August, 1100, whilst hunting 
in the New Forest, he was accidentally shot by an arrow, 
through the heart, by Sir Walter Tyrel, a French gentleman. 
He died instantaneously, and his body was discovered in the 



WILLIAM II. 33 

evening, by some countrymen, lying on the ground. Sir 
Walter Tyrel escaped to France, and joined the crusade. 
The remains of the king were hastily interred in Winchester 
Cathedral, but as his life had bdfen impious, and his belief 
in God doubted, all religious ceremonies were omitted at his 
funeral. He was forty-four years of age, having reigned 
thirteen years. 

He built, at the expense of the neignooring counties, 
Westminster Hall, a wall round the Tower, and a bridge over 
the Thames. During his reign, the English, owing to their 
support of the king against his Norman rebels, began once 
more to interest themselves in national affairs, and to hope for 
success. 



CHAPTER V. 

HENRY I. 

Bom 1068— Began to reign 1100— Died 1135— Reigned 35 years. 

Henry, surnamed Beauclerc, William's youngest brother, 
who was hunting in another part of the New Forest, when 
informed of the king's death, put spurs to his horse, and 
hastening to Winchester, seized the royal treasures, and in 
three days ascended that throne which, both by law of suc- 
cession and the compact entered into, belonged to Robert of 
Normandy. Conscious of the weakness of his title to the 
crown, and wishing to ingratiate himself with his subjects, 
Henry commenced his reign by granting a charter of liberties, 
in which he relaxed the strictness of the feudal system, prom- 
ised to fill the vacant Sees, protect the Church, be guided by 
the advice of his Barons, and to preserve peace. He also 
re-established the laws of Edward, the Confessor, and granted 
additional privileges to the citizens of London. The unpop- 
ular and rapacious ministers of his brother were removed, 
his own favorites dismissed, and the nation gratified bv his 



34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

marriage with Maude, daugnter* of Malcolm, king of Scot- 
land, Saxon heiress to the throne. 

Robert, who, at the period of William's death, had just 
returned from the Holy Lanfl, where he had refused the king- 
dom of Jerusalem, determined to assert his pretensions to the 
throne, and, for that purpose, invaded England in 1101. 
But this inconsistent prince, ever the victim of superior craft, 
after an interview with Henry, renounced all claim to the 
crown of England, and obtained in return an annual pension 
of three thousand marks, the cession of all his brother's cas- 
tles in Normandy, and pardon for his adherents in England. 
Henry, notwithstanding his promises, banished or imprisoned 
those nobles who had thrown off his authority ; Robert, 
hearing this, returned to England to intercede in favor of the 
rebels, but was himself permitted to return to Normandy 
only on resigning his pension in favor of Queen Maude. 

After such treatment, Robert sought the friendship, and 
accepted the services, against his brother, of those English 
outlaws who had possessions in his Duchy. This served the 
rapacious Henry as a pretext for invading Normandy, and in 
two campaigns he subdued the entire country. After an 
obstinate conflict at Tinchebrac, on the 27th September, 1106, 
in which Robert made the last display of his brilliant qual- 
ities as a commander and a soldier, being completely routed, 
he was sent prisoner to England, where, after languishing in 
captivity for twenty-six years, deserted by his friends and 
deprived of his inheritance, he died in Cardiff Castle ; his 
eyes having been put out by the command of his brother.! 
The great fault in Robert's character was want of prudence. 
His life was one continued scene of misfortune ; cajoled and 
cheated by his brothers, he was plundered and robbed by the 
companions of his pleasures. 



* By Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling. 

t This inhuman treatment was a favorite punishment in feudal times, 
because, by the laws of chivalry, it prevented the party so mutilated from 
bearing his title. An illustration of this is to be met with in Shakspeare'a 
King Lear. 



HENRY I. 35 

William, the infant son of Robert, after his father's defeat, 
was conveyed by a faithful vassal to the French court, where 
Louis VI, commonly called Le Gros, or the Fat, dreading so 
powerful a monarch as Henry, in France, promised his pat- 
ronage and succor to the child. The French king, aided by 
the Norman Barons, took up the cause of the injured youth; 
but, after several attempts to retake Normandy, they were 
defeated at the battle of Brenneville in 1119; and, on the 
intercession of the Pope, a treaty of peace was concluded ; 
Henry retaining what he principally desired, possession of 
Normandy, and Louis receiving the homage, as sovereign 
lord, of William, Henry's son, instead of that of his father. 

Henry, having securei the object of his wishes, set sail for 
England in November, 1120, after an absence of four years. 
William, his only son, embarked shortly after his father, on 
board " the White Ship," with a retinue of one hundred and 
forty young knights and noblemen. Festivity and intoxica- 
tion prevailed on board ; the crew became drunk ; the helm 
was neglected ; the ship struck against a rock near Harfleur, 
and gradually sunk. Fitzstephen, the captain, lowered the 
prince into a boat, and he would have been saved, if the cries 
of his natural sister had not induced him to return to save her. 
The vessel, as well as the boat, went down, and three hundred 
persons were drowned ; a young nobleman, and a butcher, 
named Bewld, alone saved themselves by clinging to the top 
of a mast. The unfortunate captain swam toward them, 
asked for the prince, and being told he had perished, plunged 
under water and disappeared. Henry's grief on this occasion 
was long and excessive ; it grew ultimately into a settled 
melancholy, and he was never observed to smile afterward. 

Henry, now without a son, and a widower, his first wife, 
" Maude the good queen," having died in 1118, married a 
daughter of the Duke of Louvain. Having no son by this 
marriage, he summoned a council of prelates and nobles at 
Windsor, in 1126, to swear fealty to his daughter Matilda, 
who united in her veins the blood of the Anglo-Saxons with 



36 HISTORY OF ENGr.AND. 

that of the Norman princes. Matilda then was the widow 
of Henry IV, Emperor of Germany. Henry offered her hand 
to Geoffry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, by whom she was 
espoused. This marriage was alike displeasing to Henry's 
nobles and Matilda, but the king, after the birth of a grand- 
son in March, 1133, obliged the former, in an assembly 
holden at Oxford, to renew their fealty to her and her first- 
born son, Henry. 

Two years after this attempt to confirm the succession in 
his descendants, Henry died of a surfeit, caused by eating 
lampreys, in which he was forbidden to indulge, on Sunday, 
December 2d, 1135, aged sixty-seven. 

To great courage, Henry added considerable capacity, both 
in military and civil affairs. Public tranquillity, and the 
administration of justice, were objects he had constantly at 
heart; the severity with which he punished violations of the 
law, gained him the title of The Lion of Justice. These 
good qualities were, however, sullied by acts of cruelty, 
avarice, and incontinence. Henry, like his father, was a 
determined opponent of Papal supremacy in England, and 
made the archbishop of Canterbury head of the English 
Church. By his unjust exactions from the people and the 
Church, he accumulated immense wealth, and founded mon- 
asteries at Chichester, Dunstable, and Reading. In his reign 
as much corn might be purchased for a shilling as would 
serve one hundred men for one day ; and for a groat, (four- 
pence) as much hay and corn as twenty horses would eat at 
the same time. 



CHAPTER VI. 
STEPHEN. 

Born 1104 — Began to reign 1135 — Died 1154 — Reigned 19 years. 

Stephen, Earl of Boulogne, was the second son of the Earl 
of Blois, by Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and nephew 



STEPHEN. 37 

to the late King, one of the nobles whom Henry compelled 
to swear fealty to Matilda. In spite, however, of his oath, 
immediately after Henry's decease, he hastened to London, 
where he was proclaimed King by the citizens. Having 
summoned the prelates and nobles of the realm to meet at 
Oxford, he was elected King.* At this convention Stephen 
granted a most extensive charter, wherein the rights and 
immunities of the Church were secured, the old laws con- 
firmed, and illegal exactions on the people strictly forbidden. 
He also procured a confirmation of his succession from the 
Pope. 

Matilda, however, determined not to submit to the usurpa- 
tion of her cousin, and she collected forces to support her 
title : David, King of Scotland, was the first in Britain to 
assert her claim ; he invaded England, but was completely 
defeated, with the loss of one half of his army, by Stephen, 
at the battle of The Standard, fought near Northallerton. 
David sued for peace, which Stephen granted on having five 
Scotch noblemen delivered up to him as hostages. 

Stephen, by his severity toward the Church, soon lost the 
support of the clergy, and they began to intrigue with his 
rival. On the 30th September, 1139, with the small force 
of one hundred and forty knights, Matilda landed on the 
coast of Suffolk; her hopes of success depended on the dissat- 
isfaction of the clergy and some of the nobles with Stephen's 
government, and the exertions and popularity of her natural 
brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester. Nor was she disap- 
pointed, for after three years of civil war, Robert, with an 
army of ten thousand men, engaged Stephen at Lincoln in 
1141 ; who, having fought for some time with all the energy 
of despair, and disabled by a blow from a stone, was taken 
prisoner, and his troops put to flight. The King, loaded with 
chains, was closely confined in Bristol Castle. Such conduct 

* The following is an extract from Stephen's Coronation Oath: "I, 
Stephen, by the grace of God, the consent of the clergy and people, being 
elected King over England, do swear, etc., etc." 



38 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

is little honorable to the humanity of Matilda, as in the 
commencement of the contest, she had herself been surprised 
in the castle of the Queen dowager by Stephen, and permitted, 
as a mark of respect due to her birth, to retire unmolested. 
Encouraged by success, she hastened to London, and was 
joyfully received and proclaimed Queen. Pier succession 
also underwent the form of an election. 

The impolicy of her own conduct defeated the hopes of 
Matilda. She grossly insulted the wife of Stephen, who 
solicited her husband's release, and scornfully rejected the 
petition of the citizens of London, for the restoration of the 
privileges they had enjoyed under Edward the Confessor, and 
also imposed on them a heavy tax. Fearing personal affront 
from the enraged inhabitants, she hastily fled from London 
by night to Oxford. The citizens then joined the King's 
forces, and once more raised the hopes of his party. In one 
of the numerous struggles that followed, the Earl of Glou- 
cester was taken prisoner, and after some delay, exchanged 
for Stephen. These miserable civil contentions continued to 
harass and impoverish the kingdom for several years, without 
any apparent advantage to either party; the eastern portion 
of England accepted Stephen a? their Sovereign, while the 
western division acknowledged the sway of Matilda ; the 
former reigned in London ; the latter held her court at Win- 
chester. The King reduced Oxford to obedience, but was 
defeated at Wilton ; death, however, accomplished for Stephen 
fhat which war denied him ; Gloucester, the most able of the 
Queen's supporters, was cut off by sickness, and Matilda 
returned to Normandy in 1147, and for two years England 
enjoyed a slight tranquillity. 

During this intermission of hostilities, Stephen again en- 
dangered the stability of his power, by requiring the prelates 
to crown his son Eustace, and on their refusal to do so, order- 
ing them to be arrested. A more formidable opponent than 
the prelates, arose in the person of Henry, eldest son of 
Matilda, whom Gloucester had brought over to England and 



educated. By his father's death, (he was earl of Anjou, in 
right of his mother) he possessed the duchy of Normandy ; 
and by his marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of the 
king of France, he acquired the duchy of Aquitaine. Henry 
landed in England in the summer of 1153, and was joined by 
the former adherents of his family. Stephen prepared an 
army for the contest ; and both forces came in sight of each 
other at Wallingford; civil war and its natural consequences, 
seamed once more likely to ravage the kingdom, when the 
earl of Arundel had the courage to assert " that it was not 
reasonable to prolong the calamities of a whole nation, on 
account of the ambition of two Princes." This sentiment 
once expressed was universally acknowledged, and the two 
chiefs agreed to a truce, in order to negotiate a permanent 
peace. The only obstacle to the completion of this wished- 
for event was removed by the death of Eustace, Stephen's son, 
who, fearing his succession to the throne would be endangered 
by the proposed treaty, revolted against his father, but was 
cut off by his intemperate habits. 

A council of the nation was held at Winchester, in Novem- 
ber, 1153, when it was agreed that Stephen should retain the 
crown, adopting Henry as his son and successor, the king- 
dom being settled on his heirs. In return, Henry swore alle- 
giance to the King, and confirmed the lands and honors 
possessed by Stephen, before his accession, to his surviving 
son, William, on his father's death. A few months after this 
arrangement, Stephen died at Canterbury, having reigned 
amid tumult and confusion for nineteen years ; his remains 
were intererred by the side of his faithful wife, at Feversham, 
in a convent which he had founded. The desolation of 
England during the civil wars of this reign was dreadful, 
villages and towns were left entirely destitute of inhabitants. 
Stephen, although an usurper and stained with many crimes, 
was not without his good qualities. " He owed his crown to 
the good will of the nation, and he owed this good will to 
the concessions he made in favor of liberty."* 

* Bolingbvoke. 



40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER VII. 

HENRY II. 

Born 1132 — Began to reign 1154 — Died 1189 — Reigned 35 years. 

The reign of Henry Plantagenet, (called Fitz-Empress, from 
his mother, and Court-Mantel, from bringing the fashion of 
short cloaks into England), commenced with glorious pros- 
pects. Undisputed monarch of England, the most warlike 
districts of France, from the borders of Picardy to the moun- 
tains of Navarre, acknowledged him as their Sovereign ; his 
own subjects hoped to enjoy the bles-sings of peace and pros- 
perity under his government, and the sovereigns of Europe 
regarded with anxiety the proceedings of s-o young and powerful 
a king. 

Henry, with his Queen Eleanor, was crowned at West- 
minster, amid his nobles and people, on December 19th, 
1154; even in the commencement of the reign, the nation 
was not disappointed in its expectations. Henry chose as his 
ministers men ripe in years, fitted by their experience, wisdom, 
and virtue, to suggest the best measures for reforming a cor- 
rupt people, and restored the impartial administration of 
justice, which had been neglected amid the tumults of the late 
reign. He ordered all mercenaries to depart the kingdom ; 
diminished the power of the rebellious barons, by demolishing 
the castles erected since the death of his grandfather, William 
the Conqueror ; restored the purity of the coinage, and granted 
charters to rising towns. He also compelled the Scotch 
King, Malcolm, to exchange for the earldom of Huntingdon 
the three northern counties, which had long been in the pos- 
session of the kings of that nation. In the second year of his 
reign, he assembled a council, or as some historians affirm, a 
Parliament, at Wallingford, where the bishops and barons 
swore allegiance to his sons, William and Henry, and he con- 
firmed the charter of his grandfather. He also obtained a 
grant of the kingdom of Ireland from pope Adrian, who was 



HENRY II. 41 

the only Englishman ever raised to the papacy ; and better 
known in Ecclesiastical history as Nicholas Breakspear. 

Henry having thus contributed by his early measures to the 
safe establishment of his throne, and the happiness of his sub- 
jects, experienced, after an interval of eight years, the advan- 
tages of good government : the Welch submitted to his power ? 
and the ambition of Louis King of France was curbed. He 
was now destined to encounter vexations and disappointments 
from a party who, under the guise of religion, aimed at uni- 
versal temporal power ; in fact the claims of the Church and 
the rights of the Crown were now to be contested. 

The weakness of the previous monarch's title to the throne, 
and the contentions respecting the succession, greatly 
increased the power of the barons, who enriched themselves 
with the spoils of Majesty. Henry, by levelling their castles 
and granting charters to flourishing commercial towns, enabled 
himself to restrain within proper bounds the influence of his 
peers, and gave to the people a just estimate of their interest 
in the stability and prosperity of the country. He also added 
to his own greatness, by the silent commencement of the des- 
truction of the feudal system, and infused a spirit of inde- 
pendence and freedom into the body of the nation, which has 
never since ceased to be a characteristic of the English 
people. 

During the early ages of Christianity, the Church through- 
out Europe had been so liberally endowed, that its very 
wealth corrupted its members, endangered its stability, and 
alienated the affections of the people. The popes, relying 
on their riches, and the superstitious feelings of the age, 
claimed the right of investiture to all sacred offices, which, 
however, the English monarchs always denied. As the 
power of the clergy increased, they enjoyed immunity from 
all secular punishment, asserting their right to be judged and 
punished only by ecclesiastical tribunals. The judges of the 
land complained to Henry of the evil consequences arising 
from these privileges, as the clergy, in spite of their dissolute 



42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

lives, and the atrocious crimes of many of them, escaped all 
punishment. The King determined to correct this evil, and 
thus arose his celebrated quarrel with Thomas a Becket, 
which for some time disturbed the security of the kingdom. 

Thomas a Becket was the son of a citizen of London, who, 
having made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was enslaved by the 
Mussulmen. The daughter of his master fell in love with 
him, and, when he escaped, followed him to London, and 
there was married to him, she having previously renounced 
Mahometanism. After the death of his father, Becket was 
protected and promoted by Theobald, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, and through him, having gained the favor of Henry, 
was made Lord Chancellor, for which office, from his inti- 
mate knowledge of law, he was well calculated. Henry, 
determined to curtail the license of the clergy when the See 
of Canterbury became vacant, selected Becket for the pri- 
macy, in 1162, as the ablest of his counsellors and the most 
intimate of his friends. While Chancellor, Becket revelled 
in luxury and magnificence, kept open table for every person 
who had business at his court ; took precedence of all lay 
barons, and numbered among his vassals many knights, who 
did him homage. So great was his influence, that Henry 
resigned into his hands the government of the kingdom, 
which proved alike beneficial to the country and to the sove- 
reign. On becoming Archbishop of Canterbury, the pomp, 
parade, and worldly pursuits of the Chancellor, were dis- 
carded for a life of humility and mortification ; sackcloth of 
the roughest description, supplied the place of gorgeous ap- 
parel ; a few monks were substituted for his knightly attend- 
ants ; sports and revels were exchanged for acts of charity 
and self-denial. Conceiving secular duties inconsistent with 
his religious functions, he resigned the Chancellorship. 

Hostilities between Church and State commenced in the 
year 1163. A priest having debauched the daughter of a res- 
pectable man, then murdered her father, in order that he 
might not be disturbed in his guilty intercourse ; Henry 



HENRY II. 43 

demanded that the criminal should be brought before a civil 
tribunal, but Becket, in order that the culprit should escape 
the king's justice, placed him in the custody of his bishop. 
A great council was then summoned to meet at Westminster, 
and the prelates attending, the king demanded, that when 
ecclesiastics were convicted of civil offences, and degraded, 
they should be transferred to the secular power for punish- 
ment. Finding it difficult to obtain clerical acquiescence in 
this demand, he asked the prelates if they were ready to 
observe the ancient laws and customs of the realm ; Becket 
replied " Yes, saving the privileges of their order;" on this 
answer, Henry abruptly broke up the council. The bishops 
perceiving they had fallen under the king's displeasure, shortly 
afterward repaired to Woodstock, then the royal residence, 
and assented to his demands. Becket followed their exam- 
ple unwillingly at the last moment. Their formal assent 
was obtained at a council of the nation, held in January, 
1164, which is known in history as the council of Clarendon, 
and the resolutions of which are called the constitutions of 
Clarendon ; at this meeting, it was only by the tears and 
entreaties of the lay peers that Becket acquiesced. 

Becket was so mortified at the result of this council, that 
he openly did penance for his culpable weakness in yielding 
his acquiescence ; he endeavored to retire to France, but 
was arrested on the charge of a mal-administration of the 
king's revenues, and a violation of his duty in affording pro- 
tection to Churchmen. He was tried for treason at North- 
ampton, and found guilty. When summoned to receive 
sentence, he arrayed himself in his sacerdotal vestments, 
and when condemned, he lifted up the cross he held in his 
hand, and, with his eyes fixed upon it, slowly walked out 
of court. Traveling in disguise, he escaped to France, 
where he was received with honor by the French king, and 
likewise by the Pope, then a fugitive in France, whose 
cause he had so strenuously defended. Henry, irritated, 

prohibited all appeals to the Pope, and declared it to be 
2* 



44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

treason to bring any interdict into the kingdom ; the Pope, 
on the other hand, ordered Becket to excommunicate Henry's 
advisers, and place the See of Canterbury under an interdict. 
Becket, supported by the Pope and France, had the blasphemy 
to assert, that Christ had again been tried and crucified in 
his person. After several years of contention and strife, 
Henry, in obedience to the religious feeling of Europe, 
agreed in 1170 to restore Becket to his See, to be holden as 
it had been by his predecessors, and to require no express 
submission to the statutes of Clarendon. 

SECTION II. 

Becket, having thus partially triumphed over Henry, re« 
turned to England in December, 1170. His progress from 
the coast to Canterbury resembled the state and magnificence 
of a King. His success appears to have increased his 
haughtiness and pride ; he not only refused to remove the 
ecclesiastical censures he had pronounced against those 
prelates, who had adhered to Henry, but excommunicated 
one of the King's retainers, for acts done previous to his 
return. 

The King, then in Normandy, when informed of Becket's 
proceedings, by several of the bishops, who repaired to him 
imploring protection against him, exclaimed to his courtiers 
" that he was an unfortunate prince, in having maintained 
so many cowardly and thankless men, none of whom would 
avenge the injuries he had sustained from one turbulent 
priest." The deadly hint was understood, and four knights, 
barons of the realm, William de Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, 
Richard Britto, and Reginald Fitz-wise, bound themselves 
by an oath, to compel the primate to withdraw his censures, 
carry him out of the kingdom, or put him to death. Becket 
appears to have been aware of this combination for his ruin, 
for, on Christmas day, 1170, at the conclusion of a sermon, 
he observed, that those who thirsted for his blood would 
soon be satisfied ; but that he would first avenge the Church, 



HENRY II. 45 

by excommunicating two disturbers of his diocese. On the 
28th of December, the knights arrived secretly, in the neigh- 
borhood of Canterbury, and on the following day abruptly 
entered Becket's apartments, and required him to withdraw 
his censures, or depart the kingdom ; both of which demands 
the Archbishop refused to comply with, and the knights 
retired. Becket, heedless of the wishes of his clergy, as 
usual, attended vespers in the cathedral, whither his enemies 
armed resorted ; rushing into the aisle, with drawn swords, 
they cried out, as he was ascending the steps of the altar, 
" where is the traitor ?" to which, Becket replied, " I am 
no traitor, but a priest, ready to suffer, in the name of him 
who redeemed me." They repeatedly advised him to quit 
England, striking him with the flat part of the sword, and 
saying, " Fly, or you are dead;" he descended the steps, 
clung to one of the pillars of the church, and struggled with 
his assailants, who were anxious to accomplish their object 
in some place less sacred. Becket, bowing his head, as if 
in the act of prayer, was wounded on the head by Fitz-wise. 
He exclaimed, " To God, St. Mary, and the Saints, I com- 
mend myself and the Church's cause ;" covering himself 
with his robes, and joining his hands, he was murdered by 
the repeated blows of his assassins ; and his blood scattered 
on the pavement of the altar, by a sub- deacon, known by 
the appellation of the 111 Clerk. 

Thus perished, at the age of fifty-three, Thomas a Becket, 
a martyr to that Church which subsequently canonized him ; 
he was in every respect a remarkable man, turbulent, haughty, 
and austere ; he had no petty or mean vices ; his ideas were 
lofty and great ; and though his designs were fraught with 
injury to his country, there is no reason to doubt the sincer- 
ity of his attachment to his order, whilst the heroic firmness 
of his death increases the detestation of his murder. Henry, 
on hearing of his death, expressed great grief, and made his 
peace with the Pope, by relinquishing his design against the 
Church, promising his assistance in the Crusades, and 



46 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

making a humiliating pilgrimage to the shrine of his victim, 
where, after passing the night on the pavement, and being 
scourged, he was absolved by the monks. 

The next events of importance, in Henry's, reign, belong 
more properly to a history of Ireland. Henry, as may be seen 
by nis obtaining a grant of that island from Pope Adrian, 
entertained thoughts of the conquest of Ireland, soon after 
his accession, but was dissuaded from the attempt, by the 
entreaties of his mother. Circumstances now afforded him 
a pretext for interfering in its affairs. Dermont Mac Morroh, 
king of Leinster (one of the five kingdoms into which Ireland 
was divided), was (a. d. 1168), on account of his tyranny 
and vices, expelled from his dominion, by his own subjects; 
and sought the protection of Henry, promising, if restored 
by his aid, to hold his kingdom of him, as sovereign lord. 
Henry, occupied at the time, by his own affairs, and therefore 
being unable to undertake the expedition, granted letters 
patent, directed to his subjeats, giving them license to aid 
and assist Dermot in the recovery of his kingdom. Dermot 
then entered into an agreement with Strongbow, Earl of 
Pembroke, a powerful and warlike baron, promising him 
his daughter in marriage, and succession after his death to 
the kingdom, provided he recovered his dominions for him. 
Strongbow, having secured the assistance of several English 
nobles, by the offer of large estates, proceeded to Ireland, in 
compliance with his agreement, and reinstated Dermont in 
his kingdom in 1169. 

No sooner was Dermont once more securely seated on the 
throne of Leinster, than he conceived the idea of becoming 
monarch of the whole Island, and again requested the assist- 
ance of Strongbow. The Earl, after some delay, having 
received Henry's implied rather than express permission, 
collected an army of one thousand men and two hundred 
knights ; and notwithstanding that the king revoked his per- 
mission, sailed with his forces from Milford Haven and landed 
near Waterford, in August, 11 TO, and a few days afterward 



HENRY II. 47 

took that town by storm. Dermot, having joined with his 
troops, and celebrated the Earl's marriage with his daughter, 
the united forces marched to the capitol and took Dublin; 
and before the end of that campaign, reduced the kingdom 
of Meath. Dermot, dying in 1171, Strongbow ascended the 
throne of Leinster. 

Henry, enraged by the disobedience of his orders, set out 
from Normandy for England, determined to punish the offend- 
er. As soon as Strongbow heard of the king's arrival in 
England, he hastened over, threw himself at his feet, emplored 
his pardon, and resigned his conquest. The king, pleased 
with his submission, took him into his royal favor, granted 
great part of Leinster, and now determined to reduce all Ire- 
land to his obedience. Henery landed in Ireland with his 
army, in the October following, fixed his court, and remained 
during Christmas at Dublin, where the king of Connaught 
paid homage to him, and by that act annexed the island to 
the English Crown, in consideration of which Henry assumed 
the title of Lord of Ireland. 

SECTION III. 

Henry had scarcely gratified one of the earliest wishes of 
his heart, by the conquest of Ireland, ere he found himself 
involved in the most unnatural contests, with those who 
possessed his dearest affections, and toward whom he had 
ever behaved in the most tender and affectionate manner, his 
own children. His early matrimonial engagement with 
Eleanor, the debauched and repudiated wife of Louis III, 
was not calculated to produce domestic happiness, while his 
own incontinent and licentious life so exasperated the queen, 
that she was, in no inconsiderable measure, the cause of his 
children's enmity toward him. 

Henry had singled out for his particular affection, Rosamond 
Clifford, the daughter of a gentleman in Herefordshire, whose 
matchless beauties, grace, and elegance of mind, have been 



48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

among the most favorite themes of historians and poets.* 
This lady, usually called the Fair Rosamond, was concealed 
in a house in Woodstock park, the approaches to which formed 
a labyrinth, impassable without the guidance of a thread.j 
The queen, gaining possession of the thread, destroyed her 
rival by poison. The king resented this conduct of the 
queen, and Eleanor excited her sons to rebellion. 

Henry had five sons by his wife, four of whom only were 
at this time living ; designing for his eldest son, Henry, the 
succession to the crown of England, and the provinces of 
Anjou, Maine, and Toulouse, he caused him during his life 
to be anointed king ; to his second son, Richard, he gave 
the Duchy of Guienne, and the county of Poitou ; Geoffrey, 
in right of his wife, already possessed the Duchy of Brittany ; 
and the new conquest of Ireland was destined for his favorite 
John. On the coronation of Hen his consort, the daughter 
of Louis, of France, did not participate in the ceremony, 
which omission was resented as an insult. The old king, 
ever kind and indulgent, ordered another coronation to take 
place, on which, elated with success, the young prince 
demanded possession of either England or Normandy. Henry, 
excited by this demand, refused the request with indignation. 
The queen, eager to revenge herself for her husband's infi- 
delities, embraced the opportunity thus afforded, and urged 
her sons to escape to France, and demand assistance against 



-My beauty was mine owne, 



No borrowed blush, which bankrupt beauties seek. 

Years had armed my youth 

With rarest proofs of beauty ever seene : 

• • • • • 

Soon could I teach my brow to tyrannzie. 
And make the world do homage to mine eyes. 

The Complaint of Rosamond. 

t A stately palace he forthwith did build, 
Whose intricate innumerable ways 
With such confused errors so beguiled. 

None but the King might come into the place, 
With certain maidens that did attend my need, 
And he himself came guided by a thread. 



HENRY II. 49 

their father. Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey, followed her 
advice, but she herself attempting to join them, fell into the 
hands of her offended husband, who consigned her to close 
confinement for the remainder of his life. 

His sons, aided by the French monarch, invaded their 
farther's continental dominions, and sent a band of foreign 
mercenaries, under the command of the Earl of Leicester, to 
subdue England. William, the Lion, king of Scotland, 
deeming this a favorable opportunity to ravage England, 
advanced into the northern counties. Events appeared to 
threaten the safety of Henry's throne, and, not able to depend 
on his own subjects for support, he allured to his standard a 
body of twenty thousand adventurers ; who, under the name 
of Brabanters, were accustomed to sell their services to the 
highest bidder. His foreign enemies were on all sides de- 
feated ; and the Scotch king, with a long train of illustrious 
captives, was made prisoner in an engagement near Alnwick, 
in Northumberland, and only obtained his freedom by ac- 
knowledging Henry as Lord Paramount of Scotland. Henry, 
in September, 11*74, became reconciled to his rebellious sons, 
and loaded them with new proofs of his affection. 

The old monarch, however, did not long enjoy repose ; 
fresh dissentions broke out among his sons, who were now 
contending among themselves. The death of Henry by fever, 
caused by vexation, and of Geoffrey, who was killed at Paris, 
brought a diminution, but not a cessation, of these unpleasant 
disputes. Henry wished to end his life by taking the cross, 
and joining the other monarchs of Christendom in the recov- 
ery of the Holy City, at that time in the hands of the infidels ; 
but his perpetual family broils prevented him. Philip Augus- 
tus, king of France, claimed as Lord Paramount the ward- 
ship of Prince Arthur, Duke of Brittany, son of the deceased 
Geoffrey, and Henry disputing his title, he seduced Richard, 
now the heir apparent, from his duty, and Henry was again 
compelled to look to the safety of his dominions. 

Henry's usual success in war now abandoned him ; he lost 



50 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 

several towns, and was obliged to conclude peace on very 
humiliating terms. These misfortunes, and the disobedience 
of his favorite son, John, made a deep impression on his 
heart, and he soon afterward expired at the castle of Chinon, 
on the 6th of July, 1189, in the fifty- seventh year of his age. 
The annexation of Ireland to the English crown, and many 
excellent changes in the laws, have thrown a lustre on Hen- 
ry's reign, which renders his memory dear to Englishmen. 
He was valiant, prudent, generous, and of exalted genius ; 
and if, in the course of a long and turbulent reign, some of 
his actions deserve censure, it is to be remembered, that he 
himself, and not his subjects, received the punishment of his 
crimes. Among the improvements in this reign, the judges 
first attended assizes, and the c mrts of law were reformed. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
RICHARD I. 

Born 1157— Began to reign 1189— Died 1199— Reigned 10 years. 

Richard, sumamed from his intrepidity, Cceur de Lion, suc- 
ceeded his father without opposition, and was crowned on 
the 3d of September, 1189. One of his first acts was to 
release his mother, Eleanor, from her prison, where she had 
lingered twelve years. Having secured his father's treasures, 
he began making preparations for joining the new levies of 
Crusaders about to embark for the Holy Land. Philip 
Augustus, king of France, in the first year of Richard's 
reign, sent an ambassador to inform him that he and his 
nobles had sworn to attempt the rescue of the Holy Land 
from the Saracens. On receipt of this intelligence, Richard 
convened a meeting of his peers at Westminster, informed 
them of the embassy, and, with that chivalrous spirit, charac- 
teristic of the age, proposed that they should follow the 



RICHARD I. 51 

example of France ; all instantly agreed to the proposal, and 
sanctified their engagement with an oath. 

The preparations of Richard for the Crusade have brought 
considerable disgrace upon his name. Having sold great 
part of the crown lands, and his supremacy over Scotland, 
and finding himself still deficient in money, he determined 
to confiscate the property of the Jews ; and, after committing 
cruelties and murders too horrible to narrate, he realized his 
object, and joined Philip Augustus at Lyons. 

The sovereigns, after reviewing together their magnificent 
and formidable host, at Vezeleri, began their sacred expedi- 
tion in June, 1190. Richard commenced his attack on the 
Saracens, by aiding the king of Portugal with five hundred 
knights, and raising the siege of Santarem, then attacked by 
the Moors, who had overrun the Peninsula. After a six months' 
residence with the French king in Sicily, he quarreled with, 
and reduced to obedience, Tancred, who had usurped the 
throne of that island, and obliged him to purchase his safety 
at the expense of forty thousand ounces of gold. The Gov- 
ernor of Cyprus having treated his sister and betrothed wife 
with discourtesey, he ravaged the entire island, deposed the 
Governor, and, after having celebrated his marriage with the 
Princess Berengaria of Navarre, and caused her to be crowned 
Queen of England, he sailed for Acre, which city (12th July, 
1191), the mausoleum of thirty thousand pilgrims, surren- 
dered to him, after having previously been besieged for three 
years. 

Philip Augustus, grown jealous of Richard, shortly after 
the fall of Acre, withdrew his army and returned to France. 
Richard conducted his forces, about thirty thousand in num- 
ber, to Jaffa ; at a distance of a few days' march he was 
attacked by the infidel commander, Saladin, who, after a 
most determined and bloody conflict, was completely routed. 
Richard boasted that, in the course of forty campaigns, 
Saladin never experienced so signal a defeat. The towns of 
Ascalon and Caesarea,and the surrounding country, submitted 



52 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

to his conquering arms ; and Jerusalem would have owed its 
emancipation to his power, had not the Dukes of Austria 
and Burgundy disgracefully deserted him ; which desertion, 
and the refusal of his Italian mercenaries to continue the 
war, obliged the heroic Richard to enter into a truce with 
Saladin for three years. The king of France having invaded 
Normandy, and his brother John intriguing against him in 
England, Richard decided on returning to his own dominions. 

In October, 1192, Richard, disguised as a pilgrim, with his 
wife and suite, sailed from the Holy Land ; he was ship- 
wrecked on the coast of Istria, and, attended by only one 
knight and a boy, after traveling three days and nights without 
food, he reached Vienna, the capitol of the Duke of Austria, 
whom he had offended at the siege of Acre. Leopold, the 
Duke, having discovered, by putting the boy to the torture, 
the rank of the pilgrim, surrounded the house in which Rich- 
ard was, took him prisoner, and sold his royal captive for 
sixty thousand pounds, to Henry V], Emperor of Germany, 
Richard's most determined enemy, by whom he was impris- 
oned in a castle of the Tyrol, deprived of his own faithful 
attendants, and constantly surrounded by guards, who with 
their naked swords attended him by day, and watched at his 
bedside by night. 

The people of England, devotedly attached to their king, 
and eagerly waiting to behold the chivalrous champion of 
Christianity, remained for some time in ignorance of the fate 
of Richard, which was at length discovered by an adventure 
possessing more the air of romance than history. The king, 
who happily possessed a sanguine and cheerful disposition, 
cheered his solitude by singing and playing Provencal songs; 
he was one day answered from without by the well-known 
voice of Blondell, his minstrel, sent from England to discover 
his master. 

The Emperor, finding the monarchs of Europe indignant 
at the arrest of a king, attempted to justify his conduct by 
charging Richard with the murder of Conrad, Marquis of 



RICHARD I. 53 

Mountferrat, one of the most distinguished crusaders, but was 
ultimately compelled to agree to Richard's liberation, on 
receiving a ransom of one hundred and forty thousand marks 
of silver. This sum having been raised by the sale of the 
plate of all the churches and monasteries in England, and a 
tax on land, Richard, after a captivity of thirteen months, 
returned (March 13, 1194) to his native country, amid the 
acclamations and rejoicings of his subjects. 

Richard, immediately after his return, assembled a council 
at Northampton, where, with generosity equal to his valor, 
he forgave his brother John's conspiracy with Philip of France 
against his crown and life, exclaiming : " I wish I could as 
easily forget your offences as you will my pardon." He 
determined to avenge himself en Philip, and declared war 
against him ; and, after an indecisive contest of four years, 
Richard was mortally wounded before the castle of Chaluz, 
in Limousin, 24th March, 1199, after a reign of ten years, 
not one of which was passed in England. 

Richard was more a knight-errant than a king — his per- 
sonal adventures are more akin to romance than reality.* 
He was brave and noble ; but his good qualities were alloyed 
by pride, cruelty, and, some say, avarice. The taxes in his 
reign were greatly increased ; and so much money was sent 
out of the kingdom for the crusade and the king's ransom, 
that not one genuine coin of this king's stamp is to be found 
in the collections of the curious. 



* Dr. Johnson's lines on Charles XII, it has been correctly said, are 
more applicable to Richard : 

" His fate was destined to a foreign strand, 
A petty fortress and a dubious hand : 
He left a name at which the world grows pale, 
To point a moral, or adorn a tale." 



54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER IX. 

JOHN. 

Born 1165 — Began to reign 1199 — Died 1216 — Reigned 17 years. 

Richard, dying without legitimate heirs, the crown descended 
to Arthur, Duke of Brittany, son of Geoffrey, the next brother 
to the late King, and older than John, Count of Montaigne, 
surnamed Sans Terre. But the nation declaring in favor of 
John, he was crowned without opposition, on the 2*7th March, 
]199, at Westminster, after a speech from the Archbishop 
of Canterbury, in which he declared that John was elected 
king, and asserted that no one could succeed to the crown, 
unless he were chosen by the people. Notwithstanding John's 
success in England, Arthur's title was recognised in the Prov- 
inces of Mens, Tours, and Anjou : Normandy continued 
faithful to the English crown ; Lady Constance, the mother 
of Arthur, placed her son in the care of the king of France, 
and sought his assistance to recover his patrimony. Philip, 
anxious to gratify his own ambition, invaded John's conti- 
nental dominions, and sent Arthur with a military retinue 
into the provinces to which he laid claim. John, however, 
arriving, took Arthur prisoner, at the siege of Mirabeau, and, 
with horrid cruelty, worthy of his character, murdered the 
hapless youth, it is said, with his own hands. The loss of 
most of his French provinces, seized by Philip, was the con- 
sequence of this detestable crime. 

This unfortunate contest with Philip Augustus was followed 
by another, with a power still more formidable, the Pope. 
John, mean and cowardly in almost every action of his life, 
now displayed courage worthy of his station. The papal 
authority had for years been increasing in influence, and 
Pope Innocent III, hurled the thunders of the Church where- 
ever his power was disputed. He had laid France under an 
interdict, and excommunicated in succession two Sovereigns 
of Germany. 



JOHN. 55 

The election of the Archbishop of Canterbury was a sub- 
ject of contention, apparently between the suffragan Bishops 
and the monks of the abbey of St. Augustine, but in reality 
between John and the Pope, the Bishops being accessible to 
the influence of the courts, while the monks were devoted to 
the chair of St. Peter. The See becoming vacant, the monks 
secretly elected a successor; the bishops remonstrated, and 
the question was referred to the decision of the Pope, who, 
wishing to preserve peace, ordered Stephen Langton to be 
elected. John, incensed at this, expelled the monks from 
their convent, and entered into possession of their revenues. 
The Pope threatened an interdict, to which John replied, 
that if it descended on him, he would banish the whole 
clergy, and confiscate their property. Innocent fulfilled his 
threat, on which a stop was put to all offices of religion, the 
churches were closed, the dead were refused burial, and 
thrown into ditches and high-ways. John, faithful to his 
promise, relentlessly persecuted the clergy. The Pope, at 
last, in 1209, excommunicated John; absolved his subjects 
from their allegiance, deposed him, and bestowed his kingdom 
on his rival, Philip, and published a crusade over Christen- 
dom against him, exhorting the chivalry of Europe to assist 
in deposing him. Philip, having collected a fleet of seven- 
teen hundred vessels, prepared in 1213, to invade England. 
Supported by his people, John collected a large army at 
Dover, to defend the throne, but here his courage failed him, 
and the cunning of the Church proved successful. The 
Pope, already jealous of the power of Philip, had no real 
wish to increase it, by adding England to his extensive pos- 
sessions ; he accordingly sent over a legate ; who, working 
on the already trembling fears of John, filled him with dismay. 
The dastardly monarch implored the protection of Rome, 
whatever submission it might cost. The legate withdrew the 
censures of the Church on Langton being admitted to the 
See ; and to consumate his ignominy, John, on the 15th May, 
1113, on his knees, laid his crown at the feet of the proud 



56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

priest, surrendered his kingdom to the Pope, holding them 
thereafter as his vassal, on payment of an annual tribute. 
Philip, at the instigation of the Pope, desisted from his pro- 
posed invasion of England, but still pursued his conquests 
on the Continent. 

The cruelty, cowardice, and meanness of John, rendered 
him odious to his subjects, while his tyrannical measures, and 
his scandalous subjection to the clergy, roused the barons to 
exertion. Langton, although a priest, and raised to his pres- 
ent dignity by the Pope, never forgot that he was an English- 
man ; the friend of the church, he was still more a friend to 
liberty. On the second coronation of John, after he received 
back his kingdom from the Pope, he bound the king by an 
oath, to reform the English laws, and to restore the institu- 
tion of the Confessor. Having discovered the only copy of 
Henry the First's charter, amidst the rubbish of a monastery, 
he assembled the barons, exhorted them to insist on a renewal 
of it, and expatiated on the vices of John ; they bound them- 
selves by an oath, to accomplish his desire, and after appoint- 
ing another meeting, they separated and prepared themselves 
for action, by enlisting men and fortifying their castles. 

The confederated barons assembled at the festival of 
Christmas, 1214, and proceeded to London with their armed 
followers; and on the feast of Epiphany demanded of John 
a confirmation of the laws of Edward, the Confessor. The 
king, as usual, had recourse to shuffling, and promised to 
give them a satisfactory answer at Easter, which proposal the 
barons accepted, after much hesitation. The king, in the 
interim, without effect, endeavored to conciliate the good 
will of his people, and secured the assistance of the Pope, 
which, however, the barons disregarded. 

In Easter week, the barons, comprising nearly all the 
nobility of England, with two thousand knights, their esquires 
and followers, met at Stamford. They deputed Langton, the 
Earls of Pembroke and Warrenne, to go to Oxford, where 
John was, and ascertain his determination. The king 



JOHN. 



5*7 



answered, " they might as well demand my crown. Do they 
think I will grant them liberties which will make me a slave?" 
The barons, on this reply being announced, declared them- 
selves the army of God and his holy Church, and elected 
Robert Fitz-Walter their commander. They advanced, and 
secured the capital ; the people everywhere joining the stand- 
ard of the liberties of their country, while John retired to 
Odeham with a court reduced to seven attendants. He at 
last saw the necessity of submission, and agreed to a confer- 
ence. 

On the 15th of June, 1215, both parties advanced to 
Runymede, a plain on the banks of the Thames, between 
Staines and Windsor, where they remained in conference till 
the 19th ; the king sitting on the one side, surrounded by 
the legate, eight bishops, and fifteen gentlemen, whilst Fitz- 
Walter and the nobility of England stood on the other. On 
the last day of the conference, John signed that charter, ever 
since the safeguard of English liberty, and pre-eminently 
called Magna Charta. 

This celebrated charter, which is not, however, to be con- 
sidered as establishing a new code of laws, but merely as 
confirming that of the ancient laws, which was good, and 
correcting existing evils, secured inviolate, the privileges of 
the Church ; rendered the consent of the great council of the 
nation requisite to taxation ; made a denial or sale of justice 
criminal, gave protection to property and persons, confirmed 
the charters of towns, provided that every freeman should 
have permission to quit the kingdom and return, and redressed 
the grievances of the forest laws. 

John no sooner granted the charter than he determined to 
set it aside. Having received the Pope's absolution from the 
oaths with which he had confirmed it, and the excommunica- 
tion of the barons, he raised an army of foreign mercenaries, 
and proceeded to lay waste the kingdom, which he did with 
impunity, as the barons unfortunately had disbanded their 
forces. The barons resorted to foreign aid also ■ they asked 



58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the assistance of Philip, promising the crown to his eldest 
son, Lewis; but happily the death of John, which occurred 
at Newark, on the 18th October, 1216, prevented this national 
degradation. 

The character of John was alike contemptible in public 
and private life ; pusilanimous, crafty, and deceitful, in the 
former, he was licentious and brutal in the latter ; he was 
alike unfortunate in his government, and hated by his people. 
The events of his reign have rendered it infamous and his 
memory detestable. John established the English laws in 
Ireland, and, according to Camden, was the first Monarch 
that coined sterling money in England. 



CHAPTER X. 

HENRY III. 

Born 1207— Began to reign 1216— Died 1272— Reigned 56 years. 

On the death of John, the crown devolved on Henry his 
eldest son, a youth of ten years of age, who, on his accession, 
had with the name but little of the power of King. He was 
crowned after some opposition, and forced to do homage to 
the Pope. The Earl of Pembroke was named Protector dur- 
ing the King's minority. The young monarch's early educa- 
tion was intrusted to Hubert de Burgh, Grand Justiciary, a 
man whose great talents and spirit were debased by cruelty 
and pride. 

The Great Charter, with some improvements and additions, 
was renewed and confirmed by Henry in 1225, in a Council 
of the nation, and has remained ever since nearly in its 
altered state. This concession to popular opinion destroyed 
the French Dauphin's last hopes of succeeding to the English 
crown, and reconciled to the government the hitherto malcon- 
tent Barons. Henry, in 1227, being of age, assumed the 



HENRY III. 59 

administration, and declared a war against France, which, 
in its unfortunate results, proved mortifying to himself and 
excited a feeling of contempt in the Barons toward him. 

The king had hitherto been governed by the councils of 
his tutor, Hubert de Burgh, but finding himself becoming 
unpopular with his subjects, he endeavored to cast the odium 
on his minister ; and therefore disgraced and imprisoned 
him. One of the chief sources of complaint against Henry, 
was his partiality for foreigners and the contempt with which 
he treated his Barons ; this gave rise to much dissatisfaction, 
and the king was only induced by a threat of the loss of his 
crown, to dismiss his unworthy favorites. 

A. D. 123G, Henry having espoused Eleanor, daughter ol 
the Count of Provence, the kingdom was again inundated 
with foreigners, who were caressed and loaded with prefer- 
ment. One of the Queen's uncles was made chief minister, 
another created Earl of Richmond, a third consecrated Prim- 
ate. These proceedings revived the discontent of the English 
Barons. A great council of the Barons and Prelates was 
held about this time, which will be ever memorable for the 
spirited and noble declaration of the lay nobility, in reply to 
a motion of the Bishops, for the introduction of the Canon 
Law into England : " We will not change the laws of Eng- 
land." This council is called the Parliament of Merton, and 
the important laws there enacted, have ever since formed a 
part of the Statute Law of England. 

The Barons, tired with submissions producing no benefits, 
and perceiving n« chance of reformation in the king, entered 
into a compact to secure by force what they had long endeav- 
ored to procure by other means. This confederacy was 
formed and conducted by Simon de Montfort,* Earl of 
Leicester, a bold and ambitious man, capable of the most 
daring designs, himself one of the foreigners introduced into 

* He was the younger son of Simon de Montfort, whose name is rendered 
infamous by his religious warfare with the Albigenses. Vide Sismondi's 
History of the Wars of the Albigenses. 



60 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

England by Henry, and, for several years, his chief favorite, 
but now disgraced and banished from court. So great were 
his insinuations and address, that he had surmounted the 
most difficult points in the English character, a dislike of 
foreigners, and acquired the affections of all ranks. The 
king, alarmed at the growing discontent of the nation, sum- 
moned a council at Oxford, in 1258, to prepare such regula- 
tions as might be deemed necessary for the reformation of the 
state. 

On the day appointed, (June 11) the Barons, armed, 
attended by their vassals, appeared, and appointed twenty- 
four Commissioners, with supreme authority to reform abuses, 
and the king swore to observe the regulations they should 
propose. Leicester was at the head of this council, and the 
prime mover of all its deliberations : after determining that 
four knights should be elected by each county to report the 
grievances of the shire in the next Parliament, they ordered 
three sessions of Parliament to be held every year ; directed 
the freeholders of counties to elect their own sheriffs annu- 
ally ; deposed all the officers of the crown; and imposed on 
the subject an oath to obey their ordinances. The entire gov- 
ernment of the kingdom was thus placed in the hands of the 
twenty-four Barons ; who administered the affairs of the na- 
tion, until quarrels among themselves, and popular commise- 
ration for the disgraced position of the king, deprived them 
of the confidence of the nation. Henry, thus encouraged to 
action, and having been absolved from his oaths and engage- 
ments by the Pope, resumed the regal authority in 1262, ap- 
pointed his own ministers, removed the creatures of the 
Barons from power, and summoned a new Parliament, in 
which he proposed to refer all differences between himself and 
his Barons to the mediation of Louis King of France, which 
was agreed to, both parties promising to abide by his decision. 
Louis pronounced judgment (after the allegations and argu- 
ments of both parties) in favor of Henry, and ordered the 
decrees of the council of Oxford to be annulled, as subver- 



HENRY III. 



61 



sive of regal authority. The Barons, however, declared the 
decision to be so contrary to truth and justice, that they could 
not submit; alleged that it had been procured by undue influ- 
ence, and prepared to assert their claims by arms. 

SECTION II. 

The flames of civil war were once more kindled in England; 
Leicester headed the barons, while Henry and his eldest son, 
Edward, prepared for their defence. The rebels were in pos- 
session of London, but the King held the strongest fortresses 
in the provinces. After some slight successes on the part of 
the king, both armies met at Lewes, in Sussex, and a battle 
was inevitable. Leicester persuaded his troops that their 
cause was the cause of heaven, and decorated his soldiers 
with a> white cross, indicative of the religious purity of their 
motives. The contest was commenced by the Londoners, 
who formed the van of the rebel army, and who, impatient 
of delay, rushed with loud shouts on the enemy ; but they 
were gallantly repulsed by Prince Edward, and driven from 
the field with a loss of three thousand men. Unfortunately, 
the eagerness of this gallant youth to punish the inhabitants 
of the metropolis, led him too far in the pursuit, and gave 
Leicester an opportunity of defeating the forces led by his 
father and uncle, who were both taken prisoners. The next 
morning a humiliating treaty was agreed to by the king, who 
again referred the disputes to arbitration, and Prince Edward 
and his cousin were both given up as hostages for the peace- 
able conduct of their fathers. 

The power of Leicester in England was now almost abso- 
lute ; he arrogated to himself the privilege of ransoming the 
captives, and seized on the estates of eighteen barons. Wish- 
ing to preserve that power which he had so unlawfully 
acquired, he courted the assistance of a party, since the 
conquest of the Normans unknown in the legislative affairs 
of the nation — the people. He summoned a parliament to 



62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

meet in January, 1265, and as only those of the peers would 
attend who belonged to the predominant party, Leicester 
supplied the deficiency by issuing writs to the sheriffs of 
counties, commanding them to cause two of the most discreet 
knights of each shire to come to this parliament; as well as 
to the burgesses of certain boroughs, requiring them to send 
two wise and upright burgesses. This council of the nation 
contained the first outline of an English House of Commons, 
an institution which, established on the broad basis of popu- 
lar representation, has ever since been the bulwark of Eng- 
lish freedom, and the admiration of surrounding nations. 
The growth of this constituent part of the legislative body 
was gradual, requiring at first the wholesome nourishment of 
baronial protection ; at first barely able to vegetate, and at 
last, in the plenitude of its luxuriance, spreading the 
branches of liberty, not only over England, but the civilized 
world. 

The prince having escaped from his confinement in Here- 
ford Castle, called on the royalist party to assist him in 
asserting his fallen rights, and was joined not only by them, 
but by many of the adherents of Leicester, who were dis- 
appointed with his conduct. Leicester, on hearing this, 
encamped at Evesham, where he was attacked by Edward. 
The rebels, who had been weakened by sickness and deser- 
tion, defended themselves with great bravery, but ultimately 
gave way, and were pursued with dreadful slaughter. Leices- 
ter, in an attempt to excite the courage of his troops, rushed 
into the midst of the enemy, and being surrounded, was slain, 
together with his eldest son. The old king, who had been 
placed in front of the rebel army, was wounded, and only 
saved his life by exclaiming : " I am Henry of Winchester, 
your king;" he was immediately recognized and taken to a 
place of safety. The dead body of Leicester was, after the 
battle, most inhumanly mutilated. The memory of Leicester, 
by the appellation of " Sir Simon the Righteous," was long 
cherished by the people, as the champion of freedom ; indea 1, 



EDWARD I. 63 

tne national gratitude due to this great man, has for centuries 
almost prevented the many defects in his character from being 
brought to light. 

The death of Leicester restored peace to England, and 
under the wise administration of Prince Edward, into whose 
hands the king resigned his power, the country became pros- 
perous, and the people contented ; indeed, so quiet was the 
nation, that Edward felt himself in a situation to take the 
cross and join the crusade. 

The health of the old king, worn out with age, declined 
after the departure of his son for the Holy Land, and he 
expired at St. Edmondbury, in the 64th year of his age, on 
the 16th November, 1272. This prince's character is best 
seen in the actions of his life ; his narrow capacity, capricious 
conduct, and love of favorites, unfitted him for the throne, 
and filled his reign with troubles to himself, but which proved 
ultimately advantageous to the people of England. The church 
was not at peace within itself during this reign, and the 
Roman pontiffs treated the English clergy with great rigor. 



CHAPTER XI. 

EDWARD I. 

Born 1236 — Began to reign 1272 — Died 1307 — Reigned 34 years. 

The greatness of Edward's character secured his succession, 
although at a distance from England when his father died ; 
all parties vied with each other in their eagerness to swear 
allegiance, and at a Parliament holden in January, 1273, 
Regents were appointed to manage affairs until the King's 
return. While in Palestine, Edward was stabbed with a dag- 
ger dipped in poison, by an assassin hired by the Infidels; 
and it is said his life was saved by his wife, Eleanor, who, 
with imminent hazard, sucked the poison from the wound. 



64 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



After an absence of three years, Edward, with his queen, 
returned to England in July, 12*74, and was crowned in the 
month following, Alexander, king of Scotland, doing homage 
to him at his coronation. Edward secured the affection of 
the people by protecting them against the oppressions of the 
barons, and by the impartial administration of justice. To 
this end he deposed and fined all judges who were convicted 
of corruption, and compelled their successors to take an 
oath they would receive no bribes. He also punished the 
Jews for making base coin, by confiscating their goods, and 
banishing them the kingdom. 

Edward having thus settled the internal affairs of his king- 
dom, was anxious to secure the sovereignty of the entire 
island to himself. He commenced this design by the subju- 
gation of Wales. The Welsh, the descendants of the ancient 
Britons, had preserved in their fastnesses their original laws 
and manners ; they conceived themselves entitled to the 
rich domains of England, and eagerly sought an opportunity 
to ravage the country, rendering assistance to every rebellion 
against the English monarchs. Lewellyn, Prince of Wales, 
like other vassals of the crown, had been summoned to do 
homage to the new sovereign at his coronation, which he 
declined. He had previously provoked the resentment of 
Edward, by rendering aid to Leicester in the late reign. 
Edward, on this refusal, marched an army into Wales, a. d. 
1277, and having hemmed in the enemy among the moun- 
tains, brought them to terms by famine, and Lewellyn swore 
allegiance to the crown of England. The king endeavored 
to complete the conquest of Wales by acts of kindness to its 
prince, but in vain. The Welsh, irritated by defeat, again 
flew to arms, and Edward determined to free himself from 
future trouble, by the entire subjugation of the principality, 
and entered Wales with an immense army. The English 
under Edward Mortimer, advanced to the Wye, in Radnor 
shire, where Lewellyn had encamped. His troops were 
surprised, and he himself slain bv one to whom his person 



EDWARD I. 65 

was unknown. The independence of his country ceased with 
the life of the unfortunate prince : on his death becoming 
known, the nobles immediately submitted, and Wales was 
compelled to adopt English laws. David, the brother of 
Lewellyn, driven from place to place, was at last given up 
to Edward, and suffered, most unjustly, as a traitor. 

Edward passed a year in Wales, engaged in endeavors to 
secure the permanency of his conquest. His policy might be 
necessary to success, but it was inhuman ; in order to put 
down the feelings of national independence, he assembled 
together all the Welsh bards, (the pride of their countrymen), 
and barbarously massacred them. Queen Eleanor, during 
her residence in Wales, bore her first son, Edward, whom 
the natives claimed as their countryman, and who received 
the title of Prince of Wales, which title has ever since been 
attached to the heirs apparent to the crown of England. 

Edward, during the Parliamentary session of 1275, gave 
his assent to many excellent laws, securing the peace and 
liberties of the people, and which are called the Statutes of 
Westminster. 

Peace had continued between England and Scotland for 
many years, and was ratified by a matrimonial engagement 
entered into between Edward on behalf of his infant son, and 
the Scotch Parliament on the part of their youthful queen, 
Margaret, " The Maid of Norway," when suddenly the death 
of the queen dissipated these flattering prospects. Disputes 
and disorders arose as to the succession to the throne of 
Scotland, which were referred to the decision of Edward, as 
lord paramount of that kingdom. 

Edward awarded the kingdom to John of Baliol, the claim- 
ant, who was undoubtedly the true heir, and who, to obtain 
the crown, consented to wear it as a vassal, and did homage 
to Edward accordingly ; his decision was, however, protested 
against by John Bruce, his competitor. Edward, thus 
acknowledged as the lord paramount, lost no opportunity 
of exercising the privileges belonging to him ; King John, 



66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

in his hands, became a mere tool, exercising little author- 
ity, and only supported on his throne by the power of 
his patron, who grossly insulted him in every way. In little 
more than one year, this shadow of a king received no fewer 
than six citations to appear before Edward, to answer trifling 
complaints of private individuals. As a retribution for his 
conduct toward King John, Edward was himself cited to 
appear, as Duke of Aquitaine, before his lord paramount, 
Philip of France, to answer for injuries inflicted by his sub- 
jects on the commerce of France, and by the cunning of the 
monarch of that country, was defrauded of the orovince of 
Guienne. 

SECTION II. 

John Baliol, the Scotch king, availing himself of this con- 
troversy between the kings of England and France, and 
disgusted by the treatment he had received from Edward, 
determined to assert his independence, and, for that purpose, 
entered into a treaty with Philip of France, in 1295, by 
which it was agreed to consider Edward their common enemy, 
to assist each other against him, and not to make peace ex- 
cept by mutual consent. 

Edward immediately declared war against Scotland, and 
was joined in his hostilities by Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, 
who was Baliol's competitor to the throne. The unfortunate 
Baliol was so much despised by some of his subjects, who 
acknowledged his authority, that they refused to intrust him 
with the direction of the war, but chose twelve barons to 
conduct all affairs. The success of Edward was surprising, 
and his cruelty equal to his fortune ; the Scotch everywhere 
sustained grievous and irreparable losses ; were routed at 
Dunbar with the loss of 10,000 men ; and Baliol, distrusting 
his own troops, threw himself upon the mercy of the con- 
queror. Edward obliged Baliol to surrender, by letters 
patent, his kingdom and dignities into his hands ; after 
which, he sent this pusillanimous prince a prisoner to the 



EDWARD I. 67 

Tower of London. He remained some years a prisoner, and 
losing all desire for royalty, was sent to his own estate in 
France, where he died at an advanced age. 

Edward treated the Scotch with unexampled severity ; he 
sent all the nobility who fell into his hands, prisoners to 
England ; he destroyed or took away all public records ; 
carried away the regalia and the stone chair,* on which, for 
ages, their kings had been crowned ; bestowed all public 
offices on Englishmen, and appointed the Earl of Surrey 
governor, with an army to keep the country in subjection. 
This attempt to extinguish every mark of national independ- 
ence, created feelings of unmitigated hostility in the Scotch 
toward Edward, and roused the national pride. 

After thus humbling the Scotch, Edward once more turned 
his attention to France, and sent a powerful army, fifty thou- 
sand strong, into that kingdom, and ultimately recovered the 
province of Guienne. 

Edward was, a. d. 1298, surprised with the ne%vs of a seri- 
ous revolt in Scotland, the chief instrument of which was 
the celebrated Sir William Wallace, a young gentleman of 
ancient family, but small fortune, in Ayrshire. Wallace, 
the chief boast of Scotch history, whose memory national 
song has rendered immortal, is represented as a hero possess- 
ing great stature, immense strength and activity ; despising 
cold and heat, hunger and fatigue ; he was endued with cour- 
age, prudence, and disinterestedness ; as undaunted in adver- 
sity, as he was modest in prosperity, he was animated with 
the most ardent and unextinguishable love of his country. 
Urged by personal wrongs, he slew an adherent of Edward, 
and fled to the woods for refuge ; and there becoming noted 
for his daring and successful attacks on the English, he was 
joined by great numbers of his countrymen, likewise suc- 
cessful. 



* This chair is still in Westminster Abbey, and is used in the coronation 
of our monarchs. 
3* 



68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Wallace and his followers, becoming formidable by increas- 
ing numbers, the Earl of Surrey determined to put them 
down, and having collected an army of forty thousand men, 
proceeded in search of Wallace, who, unable to encounter 
so great a force, retired northward, and was instantly pur- 
sued. The English army, on reaching Stirling, discovered 
the Scotch encamped on the opposite side of the Forth. 
Cressingham, treasurer for Scotland, detested for his tyranny, 
urged the Earl of Surrey to pass his army over the bridge of 
Stirling and attack the enemy. Wallace, having allowed as 
many to pass as he conceived he could defeat, rushed upon 
them with irresistible impetuosity, and put them to the sword ; 
and the bridge, composed of wood, breaking down in the 
commencement of the attack, Surrey, with the rest of the 
army, were involuntary spectators of the destruction of their 
countrymen. The country, on the news of this victory, rose 
generally, and Wallace was appointed commander of the 
forces. 

These sucesses were not, however, of long duration, Edward 
hastened to recover his losses, and about midsummer, 1298, 
found himself at the head of a gallant army, ninety thousand 
strong, supported by a powerful navy in the Frith of Forth. 
He advanced into the country without opposition, destroying 
everything as he proceeded. He engaged the Scotch forces 
under Wallace, near Falkirk, and defeated them with im- 
mense slaughter, sustaining himself the loss only of one 
hundred men. Having ravaged the country, and burnt the 
towns, and having once more reduced the Scotch to submis- 
sion, he returned into England. 

Wallace, after this defeat at Falkirk, withdrew into the 
fastnesses, from which he had first roused the spirit of his 
countrymen. His retreat was betrayed by a pretended friend, 
and he was surprised in bed and carried to London. Placed 
at the bar of Westminster Hall, he was charged with treason, 
murder, and robbery. The latter charges he admitted, but 
denied the former. He was condemned, and suffered as a traitor 



EDWARD I. 69 

Edward's conquest was now again to be 'disturbed irom 
another quarter. Robert Bruce, grandson of Baliol's com- 
petitor, had been compelled to reside at the court of England 
for some years, but, finding means to escape, fled to Scotland, 
took the Castle of Dumfries, and seized the English judges. 
His followers increasing, he caused himself to be crowned at 
Scone, March 27, 1306. 

Nothing could exceed the surprise and indignation of 
Edward, on hearing of this new revolution in Scotland. He 
swore at the altar of Westminster Abbey, that he would 
march into Scotland, and never return until he had avenged 
himself, and punished the rebellious Scotch. His eldest son, 
Edward, took an oath to the same effect. After these pro- 
ceedings, the king set out to join his forces at Carlisle, where, 
being seized with a dysentery, he expired on the 7th of July, 
1306, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and, though fond of 
power, attached to his subjects. He is a favorite with the 
English, while Scotch writers, not without cause, hold him 
up as a monster of iniquity. 

Edward has been excelled by few of the kings of England, 
for views of enlightened policy, as a legislator ; and the 
changes effected in the constitution and law during his reign 
merit particular attention, and fully justify the title of " the 
English Justitian," bestowed on him by the great oracle* of 
English law. The most valuable enactment of this reign is 
that of restraining the crown from imposing taxes without 
the consent of the prelates, nobles, knights, and burgesses 
of the realm. The Court of Common Pleas was erected, 
judges of assize were appointed, the common law defined 
and improved, and many excellent statutes passed in Ed- 
ward's reign, some of which are yet in force. The feudal 
law also received a fatal blow under this king's administration. 
The taxes were much increased, as well as the prices of pro- 
visions. Wheat, when dearest, sold in London, in 1288, for 

* Sir Edward Coke. 



70 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



3s. 4d. per quarter ; and in some parts of the provinces, for 
Is. or 8d. A goose cost 4d., a fat capon 2Jd., two pullets for 
three half-pence ; a fat lamb from Christmas to Shrovetide 
16d., and all the rest of the year 4d.* 



CHAPTER XII. 

EDWARD II. 

Born 1284— Began to reign 1307— Died 1327— Reigned 20 years. 

Edward, on the death of his father, succeeded to the throne, 
but inherited few of his good qualities. A weak understand- 
ing and an indolent disposition, rendered him incapable of 
governing a high-spirited people, and his reign was a series 
of quarrels with his subjects. Regardless of his oath, he dis- 
continued the war with Scotland, and abandoned himself to 
pleasure. Weak monarchs are generally governed by the 
crafty and interested. A succession of favorites deprived 
Edward of his crown. 

The first of these favorites was Pierce Gaveston, the son 
of a Gascon knight of distinction. Wealth and honors were 
heaped on him ; the ministers, judges, and officers of the 
late king were dismissed and imprisoned, and their places 
filled with the creatures of Gaveston. The king married him 
to his niece, created him Earl of Cornwall ; and, when this 
infatuated prince sailed in January, 1308, to celebrate his 
nuptials with Isabella, daughter of the king of France, he 
made Gaveston guardian of the kingdom, with more ample 
powers than had ever been previously given to any person. 
In proportion as his sovereign's attachment to him increased, 
was Gaveston abhorred and hated by the people; while he 

* Vide Stowe'j Chronicle. 



EDWARD IT. 71 

offended the nobility by an ostentatious display of his per- 
sonal accomplishments and wealth. 

A party for the ruin of Gaveston was formed, at the head 
of which was the Earl of Lancaster, a powerful baron and 
prince of the blood ; it was encouraged by the young queen, 
who hated her husband's favorite. Edward, unable to pro- 
tect Gaveston, appointed him Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 
The absence of the favorite was however borne with impa- 
tience, and Edward, imagining he had softened the resentment 
of several of the confederates by favors and promises, ven- 
tured (1309) to recall Gaveston, when he, by new insults, 
injuries, and tyrannical conduct, increased the general dis- 
content. The barons now took arms, and compelled Edward 
to resign his authority into the hands of commissioners, whose 
first act was to banish Gaveston from the kingdom. The 
favorite retired to Flanders, and was again recalled by his 
attached master, who placed him in the garrison of Scarbor- 
ough, with a strong force for his defence. The barons, hav- 
ing determined on his death, attacked the garrison, which 
surrendered, and Gaveston was executed without the ordeal 
of a trial. The indignant king at first vowed vengeance 
against all concerned in his death, but apprehension for his 
own safety drove him into an arrangement, which ended in 
a general amnesty. 

Edward now determined to fulfill his father's dying com 
mands, and attempt the reconquest of Scotland, but was 
defeated with great disgrace by Bruce, (June 25, 1314) at the 
decisive battle of Bannockburn, which secured Scotland from 
farther irruption in this reign, and fixed the crown of that 
kingdom firmly on the head of Bruce. 

The king, incapable of continued application to business, 
and biased, to almost an incredible degree, by the attachments 
of private friendship, set his affections on Hugh de Spenser, 
a young gentleman of good family, but debauched life, inso- 
lent, and of covetous disposition, whose father likewise 
enjoyed the royal favor. The barons once more rebelled, 



72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

but were defeated at Boroughbridge, and their general, 
Lancaster, taken prisoner and beheaded. The Spensers, on 
this, became omnipotent in the kingdom. 

The queen now began to assist in conspiring not only against 
the favorites, but also the life and crown of her husband. Her 
affections had long been estranged from Edward, and fixed on 
Roger Mortimer, one of the rebel barons. Having secured the 
person of the, heir apparent to the throne, she resolved to at- 
tempt the execution of her plan, and landed with three thou- 
sand foreign troops, (22d Sept. 1326), on the coast of Suffolk, 
from France, where she had been residing, secure of the assist- 
ance of the principal nobility. The Prince was proclaimed 
Regent of the kingdom, while Edward, deserted by all his sub- 
jects, fled to Wales. The queen's troopsbesieged Bristol, then 
in the possession of the elder Spenser, Earl of Winchester : the 
town in a few days surrendered, and Spenser fell into the hands 
of his enemies. This venerable nobleman, aged ninety, entirely 
unconnected with the proceedings of his son, was, without tri- 
al, hanged, and his body cut in pieces and thrown to the dogs : 
his son, the unworthy favorite, soon after shared a similar fate. 

The king being discovered, was delivered into the hands 
of the queen, and, by her and Mortimer's machinations, was 
formally deposed by parliament, and Prince Edward pro- 
claimed king. His father was sent from prison to prison, 
and every means were tried to break his spirit, by the orders 
of this heartless woman. He was kept destitute of the com- 
forts and even the necessaries of life. Mortimer, not con- 
sidering himself safe while Edward lived, gave orders to two 
keepers in Berkeley Castle, where he was then confined, to 
put a period to his existence, which they did by thrusting a 
pipe into his entrails, through which they inserted a red hot 
iron, thus depriving him of life without disfiguring his body. 

During this reign, the commonalty first began to sit in 
Parliament separately from the Peers. The price of provis- 
ions, from scarcity, became so excessive in this reign, that 
Parliament interfered and fixed a scale of charges. 



EDWARD III. *73 

CHAPTER XIII. 

EDWARD III. 

Bom 1312— Began to reign 1327— Died 1377— Reigned 50 years. 

Although Edward III was proclaimed king on the deposition 
of his father, yet his reign did not commence till the 24th of 
January, 1327, when he was in his fifteenth year ; his coro- 
nation took place early in the following month. In consid- 
eration of the age of Edward, parliament appointed a regency 
to conduct public affairs. The Earl of Lancaster was declared 
chief of the council, and guardian of the king's person. 
The queen, however, who had the power in her own hands, 
seized the government, and was entirely ruled by her para- 
mour Mortimer, who adopted the state and dignity of a 
monarch, treated the regency with contempt, and carried on 
the administration of the kingdom according to his pleasure. 
Edward, shortly after his accession, solemnized his marriage 
with Philippa of Hainault, to whom he had been previously 
affianced, and who, on the 15th of June, 1330, bore him a 
son, who was afterward well known as the Black Prince. 

The king, now in his eighteenth year, and a husband and 
a father, resolved himself to exercise the functions which had 
devolved on him, and to get rid of the interference of his 
mother and her favorite. Edward had many causes to dis- 
like Mortimer, the chief of which was, that by his cowardice, 
the English were compelled to sell the sovereignty of Scot- 
land ; and the king now determined to bring him to condign 
punishment. The queen-mother held her court during 
Michaelmas 1330, at Nottingham, where a parliament was 
then sitting; her paramour and herself resided in the castle. 
Edward seized on this opportunity, and having gained over 
the governor of the castle, which was strongly guarded, entered 
with six faithful followers, through a subterraneous passage, 



74 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



into his mother's apartments. They advanced until they 
heard voices in a room adjoining, where Mortimer was 
engaged in consultation with his advisers. Edward and his 
friends instantly burst open the door, killing two knights who 
attempted to oppose them : the queen, alarmed by the noise, 
hurried to the room, clung to the king, exclaiming, " Sweet 
son, fair son, spare my gentle Mortimer." In defiance of her 
tears, Mortimer was secured, and hurried before parliament, 
condemned as a traitor, and executed at Tyburn. Isabella 
was confined for the rest of her life, twenty-seven years, at 
Castle Rising, where her son annually paid her a visit of 
ceremony. 

Edward now took the reins of government into his own 
hands; and although not twenty years of age, such were his 
ability and prurience, that his subjects soon derived benefit 
from his administration. He not only insisted on the due 
observance of the laws by the people, and obeyed them in his 
own person, but was the first king of England, who, in some 
measure, made the sentiments of the nation a rule for his 
guidance. 

Edward, mortified at the loss of the power possessed over 
Scotland by his ancestor, and eager to regain it, having pro- 
cured the consent of parliament, invaded that country, for the 
purpose of supporting the pretensions of Edward Baliol to the 
crown. He was victorious in every direction, and defeated 
the Scotch, who lost 15,000 men, at the battle of Hallidon 
Hill, which placed Baliol for a time on the throne of his 
native kingdom. But Edward's attention was drawn from 
that warlike people to more important conquests. 

Philip IV, surnamed the Fair, king of France, died in 1314, 
and left three sons, Louis Hutin, Philip the Long, and 
Charles the Fair, who successively came to the throne, and 
all died without male issue. On the death of Charles IV, the 
youngest brother, two competitors for the throne appeared— 
Edward, who claimed in right of his mother Isabella, daughter 
of Philip the Fair, and Philip of Valois, who founded his title 



EDWARD III. 



75 



on being the grandson to the father of that monarch, Philip 
III, by his son, Charles of Valois. The French Salic law 
excluded females ; but Edward contended, that though they 
were forbidden to inherit, as they could not perform feudal 
duties, yet that their heirs male were not debarred by a fair 
construction of the spirit of the law. Philip, on the other 
hand, maintained that it was impossible a mother could trans- 
mit a right which never belonged to herself. The cause was 
decided by the peers of France in favor of Philip, and Edward, 
aided by supplies, amounting to upwards of £400,000, granted 
by parliament, determined to establish his claim by force of 
arms. 

After a short and ineffectual campaign in France, in 1339, 
Edward, having collected a large army, and destroyed the 
French navy, in an engagement off Sluys, in which two hun- 
dred and thirty ships and thirty thousand men are said to have 
perished, invaded France in 1340, with one hundred thousand 
gallant followers. The war with France continued, without 
any material advantage to either party, for five years, during 
which immense treasures were spent, and torrents of blood 
shed. Edward signalized himself as an able commander and 
a brave soldier ; he offered to end the quarrel with Philip by 
single combat, which that monarch discreetly declined. Ed- 
ward, taking advantage of a truce, returned to England in 
1334, to settle his affairs, and make fresh preparations for his 
intended conquest. 

The French king, having, in the spring of 1336, broken 
the truce, Edward redoubled his efforts to enable him to 
renew the war with vigor. Having provided for the due 
administration of justice during his absence, and left the 
regency to his second son, Prince Lionel, he assembled the 
barons of England, at Southampton, where, accompanied by 
the Prince of Wales, he addressed them in a short speech, 
declaratory of his purpose, and concluded by informing them, 
" since he had resolved to send back his fleet on arriving in 
France, if the heart of any failed him, he might stay in 
4 



76 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

England," to which, with one consent, they answered, " that 
they were all ready to follow him, even to death itself." Thus 
supported, he sailed for France with a vast army, and landing 
in July, his career was a continued series of triumphs, the 
recollection of which still throws a luster on English valor. 

SECTION II. 

On the news of this invasion reaching Philip, he summoned 
all his allies, and collected his own forces, to meet the enemy. 
Edward, after some slight reverses, encamped with his army 
near the village of Cressy, declaring that he would go no 
farther, but there defend the lawful inheritance of his mother. 
The troops of the English monarch did not exceed thirty 
thousand in number : they were met by Philip at the head 
of an army of one hundred thousand men, who dreaded noth- 
ing so much as the escape of the English ; early on the morn- 
ing of the 26th of August, 1346, this formidable host advanced 
to Cressy, and both sides prepared for battle. 

Edward, as soon as his troops had breakfasted, drew them 
up in three lines : all were dismounted, to remove any tempt- 
ation to pursuit or flight. The first line, under the command 
of the Black Prince, aided by experienced generals, consisted 
of men at arms, archers, and Welsh foot ; at some distance 
from them, the second line, led by Lords Arundel and South- 
ampton ; the third, under the command of the king, was 
ranged along the summit of a hill, as a body of reserve. 
When the lines of battle were completed, Edward, on a small 
palfry rode from company to company, exhorting them to 
defend his rights, and assuring them of victory. The French 
king, assisted by the kings of Bohemia and Majorca, the 
Dukes of Lorraine and Savoy, with the flower of the French 
nobility, endeavored to form his prodigious army likewise 
into three lines, but his troops being fatigued by a long march, 
the lines were irregularly formed. 

The king of Bohemia was in command of the first body, 



EDWARD III. W 

the Duke of Alencon of the second, and Philip himself of 
the third ; each of the divisions contained a greater number 
of troops than the whole English army. 

The battle commenced about three o'clock in the afternoon, 
by a great body of Genoese cross-bowmen, who failed to do 
any execution in consequence of the distance, and were routed 
by a shower of arrows from the English archers. The Duke 
of Alencon then advanced to the charge, and made a furious 
attack on the corps commanded by the Prince, to whose sup- 
port the second English line advanced. For some time the 
contest raged with uncommon fury ; the Prince everywhere 
risked his person, and the result seemed doubtful. The Eari 
of Warwick, anxious for the fate of the day, sent a messenger 
to the king, entreating him to advance with the third line. 
Edward had taken his stand on a wind-mill on the top of the 
hill, whence he had a complete view of both armies. Hav- 
ing learnt from the messenger that the prince was unhurt, 
and performing prodigies of valor, " Let the boy win his 
spurs," said he, " and tell my son and his brave companions 
that I will not deprive them of any part of the glory of their 
victory." The French, dispirited at the death of the king of 
Bohemia, and the Duke of Alencon, were attacked with 
redoubled ardor, and their first and second lines put to flight. 
Philip, having advanced with the third division, was unhorsed 
and wounded in the neck and thigh, and his troops shared 
the same fate with the other bodies. The victory, one of the 
greatest ever gained by any king of England, was now com- 
plete : the French left on the bloody field the bodies of one 
king, eleven princes, twelve hundred knights, fifteen hundred 
esquires, and nearly forty thousand other soldiers, while the 
loss of the English did not exceed three hundred. The 
English, it is said, first used cannon at this battle. 

Edward followed up this victory by the siege of Calais, 
which employed him nearly twelve months. While here 
engaged, king David Bruce, taking advantage of the unguarded 
condition of England, entered Northumberland with fifty 



78 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



thousand men, and ravaged the country to Durham, near 
which city queen Philippa with a very inferior force gave the 
enemy battle at Neville's Cross. The Scotch were defeated 
with great slaughter; their king captured, and committed to 
the Tower. The queen then joined her husband before Calais. 
John, of Vienna, the governor of that town, had, during a 
lengthened siege, resisted all attempts of the English with 
ability and courage ; but being reduced to the last extremity 
by famine, and despairing of succor, offered to surrender the 
fortress if Edward would guarantee the lives and liberties of 
its defenders. The king, incensed by the stubborn resistance 
he had met, was with difficulty prevailed to receive their 
submission, on the condition that six of the principal citizens 
should be delivered up to him with ropes round their necks, 
and the keys of the town in their hands. Eustace St. Pierre 
and five other heroic men, having voluntarily offered to sac- 
rifice their own lives for the safety of others, were led like 
malefactors to the tent of the English monarch : they laid the 
keys at his feet, and he commanded their immediate execu- 
tion. The entreaties of Philippa saved the lives of these 
noble patriots, and preserved her husband's honor. The 
prisoners were left to the disposal of this generous and excel- 
lent woman, who, having entertained them sumptuously in 
her own tent, dismissed them with many presents. A truce 
was shortly agreed to, and Edward returned to England to 
enjoy his triumph. His adversary, Philip, died a few years 
after, and was succeeded by his son John. 

The plague which had spread its ravages over the north of 
Asia, and the whole of Europe, broke out in London, in 1351, 
and gradually extended itself over the island. So horrible 
were its fatal effects, that commerce and husbandry were 
neglected, the courts of justice closed, parliament ceased to 
meet ; and fifty thousand persons were buried in the Charter 
House church-yard. The malady extended itself to the brute 
creation; horses, oxen, and sheep, fell victims to its malignity; 
and their carcasses lay unburied in the fields. Contempora- 



EDWARD 111. 



79 



neous historians assert, that from this scourge nearly one half 
of the human race perished; this, however, is doubtlessly an 
exaggerated account. 

No sooner had this pestilence subsided, than the flames of 
war again burst forth. The truce with France having expired, 
and all negotiations for peace having proved abortive, Edward 
the Black Prince invaded that country, in the year 1335, 
with twenty thousand men, and with consumate skill and 
bravery defeated and took prisoner John, the French mon- 
arch, at the battle of Poictiers. This victory was followed 
by a truce for two years, and the prince conducted his pris- 
oner to England. They landed at Southwark, and proceeded 
through the metropolis amid an immense concourse of spec- 
tators. The captive king rode a white charger splendidly 
caparisoned, while his modest conqueror attended him on a 
small black pony. He was received by Edward with marks 
of respect and affection, and lodged with his son in the Pal- 
ace of Savoy. After a few years' captivity, a permanent 
peace was agreed on ; but before John could proceed to 
France to fulfill it, he died, and was succeeded by his son 
Charles, who had more political prudence, but less integrity 
than his father. 

The king invested his beloved son with the sovereignty of 
the conquered provinces of France, but the prince involved 
them in debt by an expedition undertaken to restore Peter 
the Cruel to the throne of Castille. The nobles complained 
of the weight of taxation, and appealed to the French king 
who cited the prince to justify his conduct toward his vassals 
The prince prepared to reply by arms, but previously to 
en^a°ing personally in new wars, came to England for the 
restoration of his health, fatigue having exhausted his natur- 
ally feeble constitution ; and he died at Westminster, of 
consumption, in the forty-sixth year of his age, beloved by 
the people, and adored by his father. The French king, 
when no longer opposed by the abilities of the Black Prince, 
regained almost all the possessions his predecessors had lost. 



80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne, alone remained of all the 
English conquests on the Continent. 

Edward, inconsolable for the death of his darling son, sur- 
vived him only twelve months, and expired at his palace at 
Kew, June 1, 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, leaving 
behind him a numerous family. 

The reign of Edward is in every respect one of the most 
glorious in the English annals. England was, during his 
reign, alike victorious in war, and increasing in civilization, 
her navy was greatly augmented, commerce nourished, a love 
of literature was now discernible, and the constitutional privi- 
leges of parliament were strengthened. The king himself 
was both a patron of learning, and a scholar ; he maintained 
the prerogatives of his crown, while he added to the privileges 
of the people. The legislature passed an act, ordering par- 
liaments to be holden every year once at least, and oftener 
if required. In his reign, the nation doubtlessly suffered from 
heavy taxation ; but the imposts were laid on by parliament 
for visible and important services, which were known and 
approved of: the country was subject to serious temporary 
contributions, but the people were enriched. The parliament 
about this time assumed the privilege of impeaching the king's 
ministers for misconduct. Debates on the state of the nation 
became frequent, and advice to the sovereign was often 
given. The laws relating to treason and the juries were 
denned and settled, the great charter confirmed, arbitrary 
imprisonments prohibited, and wholesome enactments passed 
for the encouragement of trade. Edward, on attaining the 
fiftieth year of his reign, granted a general pardon to all 
criminals. 

The avarice and tyranny of the Court of Rome, had, during 
this reign, excited such universal disgust, that a bold attack 
was made on its abuses by the celebrated reformer, John 
Wycliffe, one of the wisest and most learned men of his age. 
Throughout a long and useful life, he incited his countrymen 
to throw off the supremacy and doctrinal errors of the Romish 



EDWARD III, 



81 



Church, and infused a spirit of religious investigation into 
the English people. He was employed in translating the 
Bible into English, at the period of his death, which occur- 
red at Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, on the 31st of Decem- 
ber, 1384. 



The commerce of England had greatly increased since the 
conquest ; but was impeded by embarrassing legislative inter- 
ference. Wool had now become the principal export of the 
kingdom. In the reign of Henry I, a colony of Flemings 
introduced the woollen manufacture; but, for a long time, 
only the plainest fabrics were produced. Edward III invited 
weavers, dyers and fullers from Flanders, promising them his 
protection. Several availed themselves of his offer, and 
then, first, was fine cloth made in England, though, still, 
only in small quantities, not at all equal to the home demand. 

The use of the magnet had contributed to the improvement 
of navigation. The royal navy was small, but the merchant 
ships were at all times liable to be taken by the king for his 
service in war. At the siege of Calais, the ships belonging 
to the king were only twenty-five, while seven hundred and 
ten of his fleet were merchant ships belonging to different 
English ports, and thirty-eight were foreign. The ships of 
that day were small, seldom capable of carrying more than 
one hundred men. 

From the conquest down till the reign of Edward III, the 
lan^ua^e of England was in a chaotic state. Saxon litera- 
ture was extinguished by the fashionable prevalence of Nor- 
man French, which, at the same time was not able to 
establish itself as the national speech. The two gradually 
amalgamated ; but, in the meanwhile, the combination was 
an unsettled jargon, wholly unfit for literary purposes. 
Literature again had recourse to the Latin. This coincided 
with the reign of scholastic philosophy. And some of the 
most eminent scholastic philosophers were natives of Great 



82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Britain, as Alexander Hales, Duns Scotus, Occam and Brad- 
wardine. During the same time Roger Bacon, Robert Great- 
head, and Michael Scott were the greatest names in mathe- 
matical and physical science. Latin became very corrupt, 
and by the middle of the fourteenth century, the common 
language, which had, now, assumed something like a dis- 
tinctive character, and already contained some literary at- 
tempts, began to be used extensively in writing, and the 
works of Minot, Langlande, Chaucer, Mandeville, Trevisa 
and Wycliffe, who all flourished under Edward III, and his 
successor, Richard II, constituted the first epoch inthe history 
of English literature. 

The thirteenth century is marked by zeal for learning, 
which, both in England and elsewhere, exhibited itself in the 
establishment of schools and colleges, and by the multitudes 
of students, that assembled in them, and which continued to 
increase until the beginning of the fourteenth century, when 
we read of thirty thousand students being in attendance at 
the University of Oxford alone. Consequently that century 
constitutes the morning of modern art and literature, and of 
ecclesiastical reformation. An exception ought to be made 
in favor of Gothic architecture, which had already attained 
almost to its perfection. 

Social life, among the higher classes, now presented a re- 
finement previously unknown in England. In the persons of 
Edward III, and his son, the Black Prince, the nation pos- 
sessed the most elegant models of knightly courtesy : and the 
age has been justly styled the noon of English chivalry. At 
the same time, there was much barbarism both of life and 
manners among the people. Robberies and murders, burn- 
ings and thefts were of daily occurrence, and the general 
prevalence of crime destroyed, at once, all feeling of security 
and freedom of movement. Many measures were adopted 
to check these outrages ; but their impotency is proved by 
the fact that after all, the people were commanded to arm 
themselves, for the purpose of arresting those daring bandits. 



RICHARD II. 



83 



The general substitution of a fixed rent for land, instead of 

arbitrary service, had now set the higher class of bondmen 
free. The asylum of free cities had delivered others, and 
although the lower class still remained in their degraded con- 
dition, many influences were at work to hasten the entire 
extinction of slavery, which, after the time of Richard II, no 
legislative efforts were made to prevent. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

RICHARD II. 

Bom 1367— Began to reign 1377— Died 1400— Reigned 22 years. 

Richard II,* the son of the Black Prince, when only eleven 
years of age, succeeded to the throne of his grandfather. The 
beauty of his person, and his youth, joined to the merits and 
popularity of his heroic father, caused his accession to be 
hailed with the greatest acclamations, and universal joy pre- 
vailed throughout the kingdom. Edward III, during the 
latter end of his reign, had resigned the active government of 
his dominions into the hands of his eldest son, John of Gaunt, 
Duke of Lancaster, a wise and moderate prince, and whom, 
together with his brothers, the Dukes of Gloucester and York, 
and six other peers, parliament appointed as regents to con- 
duct the business of state. The truce with France expiring 
early in the reign, the war was renewed, but was carried on 
languidly on both sides for some years. 

The long wars of Edward III left to his successor an ex- 
hausted treasury, and although the Commons in his reign 
never granted him supplies with a sparing hand, it was solely 

* Froissart remarks that the English had an opinion, founded on observa- 
tions made from the days of the good King Arthur, that between two val- 
iant and able princes in this nation, there always intervenes a king ot less 
prudence and courage. 



84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

owing to their confidence in their ruler. The barons too, 
taking advantage of the king's youth, disturbed the peace of 
the kingdom by their quarrels. The young king himself was 
of a haughty, overbearing disposition, immoderate in his 
pleasures and expenses, and ill able to brook the necessary 
subjection of youth. Parliament, from want of confidence 
in the king's uncles, had hitherto declined granting supplies 
adequate to the successful conduct of the war, and the country 
was altogether in an unsatisfactory and unsettled state, when 
necessity compelled the administration, in 1380, to solicit 
aid from the legislature. The parliament, after much delib- 
eration, imposed a poll tax on every person in the kingdom, 
according to their rank and estate, thus calculating to raise 
the sum of £100,000. 

This tax proved extremely obnoxious to the people, 
particularly the artisans; their murmurs and complaints 
became daily more frequent, and at last they became so exas- 
perated, that they were ready to engage in any desperate 
attempt. Violent commotions took place in Essex, and in 
Kent a rebellion was the consequence of the exaction. 

The tax being farmed out to the collectors, was levied with 
great rigor. At Dartford, one of these men demanded tax 
for a young woman, the daughter of a man named Wat Tyler, 
whom her mother asserted to be below the statutable age ; 
and the officer persisting in the fact, and using indecent 
treatment toward her, the father, with a blow from his ham- 
mer, knocked out the offender's brains. This conduct was 
applauded by his neighbors, who promised to defend him. 
They flew to arms, and sent messengers into the neighboring 
counties, commanding the people to join them in throwing 
off the yoke of servitude, and in taking vengeance on their 
oppressors. The spirit of sedition spread rapidly, and at the 
expiration of a few days, one hundred thousand insurgents 
assembled (12th June, 1381), on Blackheath, under the com- 
mand of their leaders, Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, demanding 
redress. The darina; courage of this lawless and tumultuous 



RICHARD II. 85 

assemblage was heightened by a seditious preacher, called 
John Ball, who, inculcating wild notions of liberty and equal 
rights, and inveighing against the insolence of their rulers, 
recommended the extirpation of the nobles. Thus excited, 
they entered the city of London, burning the houses of the 
nobility, murdering all who opposed their progress, and pil- 
laging the warehouses of the merchants. The government 
viewed with astonishment, the sudden rise and rapid progress 
of the insurrection, and were almost deprived of all power 
of resistance by their fears and surprise. The mob at last 
demanded an interview with the young king, who, after some 
delay, promised that he would meet them, and hear their 
complaints. On the 14th of June, Richard, with a few 
attendants, met the insurgents, sixty thousand in number, 
whom he addressed in the mildest language, requesting to 
know their wants, and promising redress. They required the 
abolition of servitude, the reduction of rent to fourpence an 
acre, the free liberty of buying and selling in all fairs and 
markets, and a general pardon for past offences. The king 
cheerfully granted these requisitions, and a considerable por- 
tion of the rebels separated, and dispersed to their homes. 

But Tyler and Straw, encouraged by success, formed more 
daring schemes of rebellion. The insurgents under their 
command, on the departure of the king, hurried to the Tower, 
which they secured. The primate, the king's treasurer, the 
king's confessor, the principal farmer of the obnoxious impost, 
and three other persons, were seized and immediately put to 
death. Richard met this tumultuous band in Smithfield, and 
entered into a conference with their leaders. Tyler behaved 
with such insolence toward his majesty, that Walworth, the 
lord mayor of London, enraged at his presumption, plunged 
his sword into his throat, and he was instantly despatched by 
the king's attendants. This bold action was likely to have 
been fatal to Richard, for the insurgents prepared to avenge 
the fall of their leader : when Richard, with extraordinary 
presence of mind, galloping up to them, exclaimed : " What 



CO HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

are ye doing, my lieges ? Tyler was a traitor. Come with 
me, and I will be your leader." The rebels were dispirited 
at the loss of their leader, and the soldiers appearing to sup- 
port the king, they implored his pardon ; which that prince, 
with equal wisdom and moderation, granted them, on condi- 
tion that they immediately dispersed and went home. 

The succeeding five years of this reign are remarkable only 
for ministerial and parliamentary quarrels, in the course of 
which the House of Commons exercised their newly- acquired 
authority of impeachment, against the chancellor, Lord Suf- 
folk. The Duke of Lancaster fell into disgrace, and the 
Duke of Gloucester acquired the favor and affections of the 
people, and ruled the kingdom. The war with France was 
still carried on, without any event of importance ; and, in 
Scotland, the celebrated battle of Otterburn was fought 
between the Douglas and the Percy. 

Richard, tired with being so long under control, resolved 
himself to govern ; and to prove that such was his intention, 
in 1388 he entered the council and inquired his age; Glou- 
cester answering " Twenty-two," " Then," replied the king, 
•' I must certainly be old enough to manage my own concerns. 
I thank ye, my lords, for your past services, but require them 
no longer." Being now his own master, Richard for some 
years governed the kingdom with wisdom and prudence ; he 
allayed the discontents and quieted the minds of the people. 
During an expedition of the king to Ireland, in 1395, his 
English dominions were suddenly disturbed by religious dis- 
sensions. The disciples of Wycliffe (under the denomination 
of Lollards) renewed the attack of their master on the cor- 
ruptions and unscriptural doctrines of the church. The king 
hastened home to protect the church, threatened the nobles 
who excited these reformers, and persecuted the Lollards for 
heresy. The war with France terminated by a truce for 
twenty-five years, when Richard was affianced to his second 
wife, Isabella, of France ; the " good Queen Anne," his 
former spouse, having died shortly before. The Duke of 



RICHARD II. 8*7 

Gloucester haci long been obnoxious to the king, and after a 
variety of controversies, he was accused of high treason, and 
secretly murdered by suffocation in prison, in pursuance of 
his nephew's orders. The power of Richard now appeared 
firmly fixed, the nobility seemed devoted to his will, and his 
government appeared free from opposition. 

SECTION II. 

While Richard thus believed himself secure from farther 
opposition, a dispute occurred among his friends, which, by 
his own imprudence, caused his overthrow and destruction. 
The Duke of Hereford, son of " time-honored Lancaster," 
accused the Duke of Norfolk, in a parliament held at 
Shrewsbury, of having spoken treason in a private conver- 
sation. Norfolk indignantly denied the charge, and offered 
to prove his innocence by single combat. The challenge 
was accepted by Hereford, and the lists were prepared at 
Coventry, in the presence of the king and a committee of 
parliament, according to the usual regulations. The combat- 
ants entered the field, and were about to engage, when the 
king interrupted the duel, and commanded the parties to 
leave the kingdom ; Norfolk was sentenced to banishment 
for life, but Hereford only to ten years' exile. The former 
nobleman retired to Italy, where he shortly died of mortifica- 
tion ; while the latter displayed such entire resignation to 
his sovereign's will, that the term of his punishment was 
commuted to four years, and letters patent were granted to 
him, enabling him to succeed to any inheritance that might 
fall to him during his absence. 

Hereford retired to Paris, where he became an object of 
jealousy to Richard, because he sought an alliance with the 
daughter of the French monarch; and John of Gaunt (his 
father) dying, the letters patent were revoked, and the crown 
entered upon possession of his immense estates. This deter- 
mined the duke to seek redress by arms. Lancaster, which 



88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 

title descended to him on his father's demise, was a universal 
favorite with all classes, on account of his piety and courage ; 
he possessed great firmness and prudence, and was looked up 
to by the noblest families in England, being allied to most 
of them by marriage or blood. A conspiracy was formed by 
several powerful nonles against the king, who was generally 
hated ; and the whole nation was in a ferment. His cousin 
and heir, the Earl of March, had been surprised and slain by 
a party of Irishmen, while acting as governor of that country ; 
and Richard hastened to Ireland to punish the rebels, not- 
withstanding the advice of his friends. 

Hereford, availing himself of the king's absence, returned 
to England with only sixty followers, and was immediately 
joined by the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, 
together with Henry Percy (from his reckless courage, sur- 
named Hotspur), with their forces, at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire. 
His cause was also eagerly embraced by all classes, and in a 
few days he marched to London with an army of 60,000 men. 

Contrary winds prevented Richard from receiving immeut- 
ate information of this formidable insurrection ; but when the 
intelligence reached him, the king hastened to England, and 
landed at Mil ford Haven with 20,000 troops, most of whom 
abandoned him in a few days. To oppose Lancaster by arms 
was impossible, and Richard fled to Wales, intending to effect 
his escape to France. Lancaster fearing the consequences of 
his escape, invited him to a personal conference at Flint 
Castle, to settle their differences; but on the road thither, 
the king was surrounded and taken prisoner. Richard was 
brought to London amidst the shouts of the multitude, who 
on all sides exclaimed, "Long live the good Duke of Lan- 
caster, our deliverer!" The duke now determined to carry 
into effect his designs on the crown, and accordingly issued 
writs in the king's name for a new parliament. 

A few days before the meeting of parliament, Richard, a pris- 
oner in the Tower, was compelled by Lancaster to sign his 
abdication of the crown, and declare his incompetency to 



RICHARD II. 89 

govern. Parliament met on the 30th of September, 1399, 
and the members having been previously gained over by Lan- 
caster's friends, the king's abdication being presented, was 
accepted, and a charge consisting of twenty-three articles 
drawn up, accusing him of tyranny and misconduct. This docu- 
ment, though liable to serious objection, received almost the 
universal approbation of both houses : the Bishop of Carlisle 
alone spoke in defence of his unhappy master ; but finding 
all arguments useless, he reminded the house that, in the 
event of Richard's deposition being accepted, the son of the 
Earl of March was heir to the crown, and ought to succeed. 
The noble freedom of this prelate was received with marks 
of disapprobation. The throne was declared vacant, and 
Henry of Lancaster claimed it as a descendant of Henry III, 
and was unanimously accepted as king by parliament. 

The unfortunate Richard, now formally deposed, was con- 
fined a close prisoner in Pomfret Castle, where he died in 
January 1400. Reports circulated by his successor ascribed 
his death to his obstinately refusing to take food ; but it was 
the prevailing opinion that his guards, eight in number, 
rushed into his apartment, and fell on him with their halberts, 
and the king, seizing a weapon from one of them, slew four 
of the assassins before he was overpowered and killed. Others 
relate that he was starved to death ; and that after all suste- 
nance was denied him, he prolonged his existence for a fort- 
night by feeding on the flock of his bed ; while some assert 
that he effected his escape to Scotland, and lived there twenty 
years. The manner of his death, in all probability will ever 
remain uncertain, but it is scarcely to be believed, that the 
man whose ambition had seized the crown, would feel any 
scruple in securing his usurpation by the death of his sovereign. 

Richard was a haughty, obstinate, and weak prince ; expe- 
rience did not benefit him, and misfortunes only served to 
bring upon him the contempt of his subjects. He endeav- 
ored, by exciting disputes among his nobility, to divide them ; 
and oppressed the body of the people, who evinced little 



90 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND 



interest in the quarrels of the lords. He endeavored to cor- 
rupt the parliament, and governed by favorites ; destroyed 
or exiled the wisest of his hereditary counsellors ; and harras- 
sed the people with pecuniary exactions. Having attempted 
to place the royal authority above all law, he only failed in 
his daring experiment through the firmness of parliament. 



CHAPTER XV. 

HENRY IV. 
Born 1367— Began to reign 1399— Died 1413— Reigned 13 years. 

Henry, surnamed Bolingbroke, was crowned a fortnight after 
his predecessor's deposition, and his reign is one series of 
insurrections. Henry claimed the throne as a descendant, 
on both sides, from Henry III, but his claim by his father's 
side was manifestly illegal, inasmuch as the descendant of 
an elder son of Edward III than John of Gaunt was living, 
in the person of the young earl of March. The pretence 
that his great grandfather, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, was 
the elder brother of Edward I, was equally incorrect. Such 
were the unstable grounds on which he rested his pretensions ; 
but the right of conquest Was his only title to the crown. 

Henry, in order to ingratiate himself with his people, 
affected peculiar sanctity; and to secure the attachment of 
the clergy, he caused the enactment of highly penal laws 
against heretics. His chief difficulties consisted in curbing 
a turbulent and divided aristocracy, ever ready to rise against 
his authority, and the display of whose fierce passions even 
parliament itself could not restrain. 

The Welsh for several years disturbed Henry's government, 
and the Scots kept the northern counties, by their border 
irruptions, in constant alarm. Henry, in 1402, assembled an 
army to punish these invaders, and marched to Edinburgh 



HENRV IV. 91 

without opposition, and after having laid waste the country, 
returned to England. In the following year the Scots, under 
the Earl of Douglas, ravaged Northumberland, and on their 
return home were overtaken and attacked by the Percies, at 
Homeldont. The invaders were completely routed, and 
Douglas and many other Scottish barons captured. On the 
news of these successes reaching Henry, he ordered the Earl 
of Northumberland not to ransom or liberate his prisoners, 
as by their detention he would be enabled to make peace 
with Scotland on more advantageous terms. The Earl, tb 
whose assistance Henry chiefly owed his crown, was incensed 
at this interference, as well as at the refusal of Henry, to 
allow him to ransom his relative, the Earl of March, a pris- 
oner in the hands of Glendower, a powerful Welsh chieftain. 
Northumberland and his gallant son, Hotspur, renounced 
their allegiance, and resolved to hurl their former friend from 
that throne on which they assisted to place him. For this 
purpose they assembled an army, entered into an alliance 
with Glendower, and released their prisoner, Douglas, who 
in return rendered them his assistance. Hotspur (his father 
being confined to bed by sickness) marched his troops to 
Shrewsbury to join Glendower, but was intercepted by Hen- 
ry's army before he was able to effect his purpose. An 
engagement between the two armies, which were both nearly 
equally strong, took place near Shrewsbury, and was long 
and fiercely contested. At first the king's troops in every 
direction yielded to Hotspur and Douglas, who rushed, with 
only thirty attendants, into the midst of the enemy ; while 
the king, having changed his armor, was, with his brave son, 
then only fifteen years of age, exposing himself in a different 
part of the field. Hotspur, separated by his reckless daring 
from his troops, fell by an unknown hand, and with him 
expired the confidence of his followers. Victory decided in 
favor of Henry, and Douglas, with many of the rebel leaders, 
was taken prisoner. 

Northumberland, on hearing the death of his son, and the 
4* 



92 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

fate of his army, disbanded his remaining forces, made sub- 
mission, renewed his fealty to Henry, and received the royal 
pardon. Henry's clemency, however, toward this nobleman 
was thrown away; for such was his restless disposition, that 
he soon afterward engaged in another rebellion, headed by 
the Earl of Nottingham and the archbishop of York, both 
of whom were taken and suffered condign punishment. The 
Earl of Northumberland on this disaster fled to Scotland, but 
afterward returning with some troops, was defeated in 1407, 
by the king's army, and fell in the conflict. 

The remaining years of Henry's reign were occupied in 
attempts to reduce the Welsh, and ineffectual interference in 
the affairs of France. His health had been gradually sink- 
ing, and before his death he became subject to fits, which at 
times deprived him of his reason. He was constantly haunted 
with apprehensions of the loss of his power, and always 
slept with his crown beside him on his pillow. The prince 
of Wales, whose irregular habits and dissolute companions 
had long been the cause of uneasiness to his father, happen- 
ing one day to enter his chamber, and finding him in a deep 
sleep, he supposed him dead, and removed the crown. The 
king, roused from his slumber, and missing it, asked the 
prince with great displeasure, if he was anxious to deprive 
him of his dignity before his death ? " No," replied the prince. 
" Supposing your majesty dead, I took the crown as my law- 
ful inheritance, but since I see you recovered I restore it with 
much more pleasure, and may God grant you many happy 
days to enjoy it in peace." The king was seized with a fit, 
which proved fatal, while at his devotions before the shrine 
of Edward the Confessor, in Westminster Abbey, and expired 
20th March, 1413, in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving 
four sons and two daughters. 

The character of Henry is indelibly stamped by his usurp- 
ation of the crown, though in other respects he is universally 
regarded as one of the greatest of English monarchs. He 
was politic and prudent, vigilant in crushing all conspiracies 



HENRY V. 93 

against his power, but unwilling to encroach on the liberties 
of the nation. He was, nevertheless, always unpopular, 
feared by the nobility, and disliked by the people. 

In this reign commenced those dreadful religious persecu- 
tions which are disgraceful to English history. The second 
parliament passed an act for the burning of heretics, which 
cannot be too severely censured. Notwithstanding this, the 
new doctrines became more popular, and even forced their 
way among the members of the House of Commons, by whom 
several attempts were made to reform the corruptions of the 
Church, and diminish its overgrown wealth. An enthusiastic 
Lollard, of the name of Sawtie, was burnt to death in the' 
presence of an immense multitude, for denying the doctrine 
of transubstantiation. 

The Commons House of Parliament, gained in this reign 
several accessions to their privileges, the most important of 
which was the security given to freedom of debate ; the esti- 
mates now began to be laid before them, the appropriation 
by them of the supplies was first introduced, and the claim 
of the crown to interfere in discussions respecting money 
abandoned. Other acts were also passed for the better regu- 
lation of the election of knights of the shire, all tending to 
promote and establish the liberties of the people. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

HENRY V. 

Bora 1383— Began to reign 1413— Died 1422— Reigned 9 years. 

Henry V came to the throne amid the acclamations of the 
nation, and was crowned at Westminster, April 9th, 1413. 
The valor and gallant bearing he had shown at Shrewsbury 
during his father's life, had afterward degenerated into riot and 
dissipation. He had attached himself to a set of dissolute 



94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

companions, and having no opportunity of showing his 
military abilities in the field, and being excluded from all 
share in the administration of public affairs, indulged in their 
disorderly humors and amusements. He carried this conduct 
to such excess, as sometimes, when under the influence of 
wine, to attack and plunder travelers on the high- way. His 
irregularities were, however, in a great measure merely the 
effects of gaiety of heart, and even when exercised in acts 
which can not be palliated, he displayed traits of humanity 
and magnanimity. He was once committed to prison for 
some offence by the mayor of Coventry. On another occa- 
sion one of his debauched companions was tried before Sir 
W. Gascoigne, the chief justice of England, and Henry, being 
in court, grossly insulted the judge. This venerable and im- 
partial magistrate, heedless of the offender's rank, and mind- 
ful of his own dignity, committed the prince to prison. 
Henry, conscious of his error, submitted and asked pardon. 
His father, on being informed of tins' circumstance, exclaimed 
in a transport of joy, " Happy is the king, who has a magis- 
trate endowed with the moral courage to execute the laws on 
such an offender, still more happy in having a son willing to 
submit to such chastisement." 

Henry on this occasion justified the expectations of his 
subjects, who attributed his faults rather to the giddiness of 
youth than to depravity of heart. He renounced his indis- 
cretions, discharged his former companions, and became an 
altered man — pious, sober, and just ; assiduous in business 
and dignified in conduct. He restored the Percies to their 
honors and fortunes, and by his kindness and attention, 
attached the Earl of March, who was lawful heir to the 
crown, to his person and government. 

Notwithstanding the efforts of the late king, the opinions 
of Wycliffe daily gained ground, and the Lollards increased 
in such numbers as to become formidable to the Church. 
Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, a nobleman of high char- 
acter and abilities, was at their head. The clergy, determined 



HENRY V. 95 

to suppress tnis heresy, marked him out as a fit object for 
persecution, and applied to Henry for permission to bring 
him to trial. Henry, after endeavoring, without effect, to 
prevail on Cobham to renounce his errors, resigned him to 
the fury of his enemies. He was tried and condemned, was 
hanged as a traitor, and his body afterward burnt, as that 
of a heretic. Severe enactments were passed for the sup- 
pression of heresy, and the Lollards were everywhere perse- 
cuted. 

The mind of Charles VI, king of France, seldom possessing 
so much discrimination as to render him capable of ruling 
that country, he became the victim of the most deplorable 
disasters. His kingdom was torn in pieces by the two furious 
factions of Burgundy and Orleans, each contesting for power. 
Internal wars ravaged the provinces, and one half of the 
nation seemed determined to destroy the other. Henry 
resolved to take advantage of these disorders, and to attempt 
the recovery of the French provinces formerly belonging to 
the English crown ; and accordingly demanded their restitu- 
tion and the hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles, in 
marriage. These demands being refused, he collected a large 
army and fleet at Southampton to assert his claims. The 
king was, however, delayed- a short time in his enterprise by 
a conspiracy to raise the earl of Cambridge to the throne, 
which was happily discovered, and the principal traitors con- 
demned and executed. 

Henry, having appointed his brother, the duke of Bedford, 
regent, landed at Harfleur in the middle of August, 1415, 
with 6000 horse and 24,000 foot, and after five weeks' siege 
reduced it. The great heat of the weather, the fatigues of the 
siege, and an incautious indulgence of fruit, produced an epi- 
demic dysentery in the English army, reduced its strength to 
one-half its original numbers, and rendered it a force too 
inconsiderable to attempt any expedition of importance. 
Henry, therefore, resolved to return home, and in pursuance 
of that intention commenced his march for Calais. The 



96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

French generals with an immense force determined to inter- 
cept him and destroy his debilitated forces. Henry, on arriv- 
ing at the banks of the Somme, beheld a great army on the 
other side ready to oppose his passage ; he, however, suc- 
ceeded in crossing the river, and on the night of the 24th of 
October encamped in the village of Agincourt in sight of his 
enemies, and a battle was now inevitable. 

Henry's army, reduced by disease and fatigue, did not num- 
ber 10,000 men ; they were in want of food and the necessa- 
ries of life, and dispirited by a retreat ; while the French army, 
abounding in provisions and exulting in their numbers, were 
so confident of victory that their leaders had determined to 
put all the English to the sword, except Henry and his chief 
nobles, whose ransom as prisoners would have gratified their 
avarice. Henry, with the most consummate skill, drew up 
his- army in three divisions, placing his archers a little in 
advance ; each archer, besides his bow and arrows and battle- 
axe, bore on his shoulder a long stake sharpened at both 
extremities, which he was to fix obliquely before him in the 
ground, and thus oppose a rampart of pikes to the cavalry of 
the enemy. The French, nearly 40,000 strong, commanded 
by the constable of France, were drawn up in the same order, 
except that while the English files were but four, theirs were 
thirty men deep. Henry on a gray palfrey went from banner 
to banner, cheering and exhorting the men, and hearing an 
officer express a wish for more men from England, " No !" 
exclaimed the king, " I would not have a single man more ; 
if God give us the victory it will be plain we owe it to his 
goodness ; if he do not, the fewer we are the less will be the 
loss to our country." 

The battle commenced by the English archers advancing 
from their stakes which they had planted, and having dis- 
charged their arrows with great effect, they retired behind 
this rampart. The first division of the French cavalry 
charged these archers, but unable to face the incessant shower 
of arrows, turning their visors down they were unable to 



HENRY V. 



9Y 



manage their chargers, which, plunging on the stakes, became 
frantic with pain, and fled among their own troops, causing 
dreadful confusion. The archers seized the opportunity, and 
rushed, battle-axe in hand, into the centre of this division 
and dispersed the whole body, having killed the constable 
himself. Henry himself attacked the second division of the 
enemy, under the command of the Duke of Alencon, which 
for two hours maintained a doubtful contest. The king 
saved his brother the Duke of Clarence's life, by striding 
across his body when he lay wounded on the ground, and 
repelling his assailants until the prince's followers removed 
him. He himself, however, was once nearly overpowered, 
and only escaped by his guards coming to his rescue. The 
British arms however prevailed, and the death of the French 
commander was followed by a general flight. The other 
division of the French army began to waver, and, refusing to 
support their leaders, Henry's victory was complete. The 
French in this battle lost 10,000 men, while the prisoners 
taken exceeded the victors in number ; the loss of the English 
did not exceed 100 men. 

Henry returned to England to celebrate his triumph, but 
soon rejoined his troops. After a variety of adventures he 
entered into a treaty in 1420 with the French king, by which 
it was agreed that he should marry the princess Catherine, 
be entrusted with the administration during the life of Charles, 
and succeed that monarch on his demise. Henry accor- 
dingly espoused the French princess, and was conducted by 
his father-in-law to Paris, and put in possession of that capi- 
tal ; but he was not long allowed to enjoy his happiness or 
success ; he died in the zenith of his glory, of fistula, on the 
31st of August, 1422, in the 34th year of his age. 

Henry V, has always been the darling monarch of the Eng- 
lish ; his glory and renown have not been eclipsed during 
the four centuries that have elapsed since his death. As a 
soldier his fame is immortal, and as a statesman many of his 
actions are worthy of admiration. His virtues were equal to 



98 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

his abilities ; he was pious, affectionate, and generous : his 
intolerance in religion was more the effect of the spirit of the 
age than personal feeling. Many excellent laws were made 
in this reign, and commerce greatly increased. His parlia- 
mentary income amounted to £80,000 per annum, equal to 
about £500,000 of our present specie. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

HENRY VI. 

Born 1422— Began to reign 1422— Died 1471— Reigned 39 years. 

Henry VI was was not nine months old when his illustrious 
father died, who, previous to his demise, had assigned the 
government of his kingdoms to his brothers, the dukes of 
Bedford and Gloucester. The English parliament did not, 
however comply with the will of Henry, but appointed Bed- 
ford protector of England, and while he was engaged with 
the war in France, which the dauphin of that kingdom had 
renewed toward the close of Henry's life, invested Glouces- 
ter with that dignity, and entrusted the education of the 
young king to his great uncle, Henry Beaufort, the bishop 
of Winchester. 

Charles VI dying shortly after, Bedford received the fealty 
of the French at Paris, to his nephew, and continued to pros^ 
ecute the war against that monarch's son, who now assumed 
the title of Charles VII, with success. The protector, having 
secured the aid of the duke of Brittany and the neutrality of 
Scotland in the contest, was every where victorious. Charles 
was deserted by most of his adherents, and the fatal battle 
of Verneuil, in 1424, reduced him to the last extremity. His 
affairs became desperate ; his army was gone, and he did not 
possess the means to raise another. The dissensions, how- 



HENRY VI. 



99 



ever, of his enemies, effected that which arms n ad failed to 
accomplish. The imprudent marriage of Gloucester with 
Jacqueline, duchess of Brabrant, before the dissolution of 
her marriage with her former husband was effected, induced 
the duke of Brittany to forsake his allies and coalesce with 
Charles ; while the haughty temper of the powerful bishop 
of Winchester produced discord among the English min- 
isters. 

Charles, thus supported, was enabled to renew and prose- 
cute the war with vigor, which had languished since the bat- 
tle of Verneuil, and now his affairs assumed a more favorable 
aspect. A new ally appeared in the person of the celebrated 
Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc, whose imagination became 
so heated with the misfortunes of her country, that she 
believed herself raised up by the Almighty for its preserva- 
tion. She induced Charles to believe her story, and had 
troops assigned her to relieve the town of Orleans. Under 
her command success attended the arms of the French king : 
the English were defeated with great loss at the battle of 
Palay, June 18th, 1429, and in a short time Charles was 
crowned at Rheims, after which event Bedford celebrated 
Henry's coronation at Paris. 

In the year 1431 an event happened which filled the Eng- 
lish with great joy ; the Maid of Orleans was taken prisoner 
in a sally at the siege of Compeigne, by the commander of 
the Burgundian forces. Bedford bought the prisoner for 
£10,000, and cast her, loaded with irons, into a dungeon, 
where she languished many months. Joan was afterward 
tried as a witch, found guilty, and burned to death under 
circumstances of atrocious cruelty. 

The destruction of the English power in France was now 
inevitable, and was hastened by the defection of the Duke 
of Burgundy, and the death of Bedford. The war lingered 
for several years, but the English daily losing ground, were 
finally expelled from all their conquests in France, except 
Calais and Guienne, in 1450. 



100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

After the death of his brother, the government was solely 
entrusted to the Duke of Gloucester, whose ministration was 
factiously opposed by Cardinal Beaufort, Bishop of Win- 
chester, a man of abilities, but of ambitious and intriguing 
character. The young king, now of age, was of weak and 
feeble capacity, and willing to be relieved from the fatigues 
of government. The cardinal, in order to secure his own 
power and humble his opponent, Gloucester, prevailed on 
the king to marry Margaret, of Anjou, daughter of the king 
of Sicily, who was in every respect qualified to supply the 
defects of her husband. The queen entered cordially into 
the views of the cardinal, and Gloucester fell a victim to their 
hostility, having been poisoned in prison. This barbarous 
action roused the nation, by whom the generous and perse- 
cuted Gloucester was much beloved ; and Henry, to appease 
the popular discontents, was obliged to sacrifice the queen's 
favorite, the Duke of Suffolk, who was implicated in this 
horrid transaction. 

The loss of the French provinces, and the prejudiced feel- 
ings of the people toward the government, since Gloucester's 
forced retirement from power, had long irritated the nation, 
and at last, in 1450, forced them into an insurrection. 
These disturbances commenced in Kent, where the commons, 
excited by a low-born Irishman, whose real name was Jack 
Cade, but who assumed the popular name of John Mortimer, 
assembled in great numbers, and having defeated a small 
body of the king's troops, they advanced toward London, and 
encamped, in number about twenty thousand, on Blackheath. 
Cade and the other leaders sent a list of their complaints to 
Henry, who, alarmed, fled with his court to Kenilworth. On 
this the insurgents took possession of the capital ; they here 
committed some outrages which roused the spirit of the inhab- 
itants, and in an attempt to pillage the city they were defeated 
with great loss, and retreated to Rochester, where they dis- 
persed. Cade was afterward taken and killed, and the 
principal leaders were tried and executed. 



HENRY VI. 101 

Shortly after this event, 1452, Richard, Duke of York, 
came over from Ireland, after having quieted the commotions 
and gained the affections of the people of that island. He 
had long been looked on with suspicious eyes by the court, 
owing to his claims to the throne and his popularity with the 
nation. This claim was derived from his mother, who was 
sister to the last Earl of March, who died without issue. 
York was thus the living representative of Lionel, Duke of 
Clarence, the third son of Edward III. Henry was descended 
from John of Gaunt, fourth son of that monarch. The tal- 
ents and connexions of the Duke rendered him formidable, 
while the weakness and unpopularity of Henry's government, 
increased by his apprehensions for his personal safety, which 
was threatened, induced him to assert his right to the throne. 
The ensign of Richard was a white rose, that of Henry a red 
one, which circumstance caused the civil contentions which 
subsequently deluged England with blood, to be called The 
Wars of the Roses. 

The Duke of York, who had long secretly fomented the 
discontents of the people, on his return to England conferred 
with his adherents, and determined at first to attempt only 
the removal of the Duke of Somerset, Henry's obnoxious 
minister. Henry having from mental weakness become inca- 
pable of governing, parliament appointed York protector of 
the kingdom during pleasure ; and he ruled the kingdom with 
great prudence and moderation. The king, however, as soon 
as he was sufficiently recovered to attend to the direction of 
affairs, urged by the haughty queen, dismissed him from the 
protectorship, and again appointed Somerset minister. York 
now determined on an appeal to arms, and accordingly raised 
an army. 

SECTION II, 

The first engagement took place (1455) at St. Albans, in 
which Henry was defeated with the loss of five thousand 



102 HISTORY OF KNGLAND. 

men, and his general and minister, Somerset, slain. He 
himself was wounded and taken prisoner. He was carried 
in triumph to his capital, where the parliament once more 
installed York as protector. His power did not, however, 
continue long ; as Henry, urged by the queen, again re-as- 
sumed the royal authority, which he was allowed to do with- 
out interruption ; and a hollow reconciliation between the 
chiefs of the two parties was afterward effected, and celebrated 
with great rejoicings. 

Peace was of short continuance; the hostile feelings of 
the factions burst forth on the first opportunity, and both 
again appealed to arms. The Duke of York, by claiming 
the crown, discovered his real views, which parliament, after 
a defeat of the Lancasterians, recognized, and settled the 
kingdom on him and his heirs, after the death of Henry. The 
Duke, on this, required the queen's appearance in London ; 
to which request this war like woman replied, by assembling 
an army in the North to rescue her husband. York hastened 
to suppress this attempt, with five thousand men ; but on 
reaching Wakefield, he was surrounded by the queen's troops, 
twenty thousand strong, by whom his little army was cut to 
pieces, and himself slain. 

Margaret improved her victory by hastening to reduce the 
capital to obedience, but was met at St. Alban's by a fresh 
body of Yorkists, under the command of the Earl of War- 
wick, who was now the great support of the cause of the 
White Rose. The queen was again victorious, and Warwick 
was obliged to retreat to London, and the king fell into the 
hands of his own party. The advance of Edward, Duke of 
York, son of the deceased nobleman, obliged the queen once 
more to take refuge in the North, and Edward was proclaimed 
king in his faithful city of London, as Edward IV. The 
government of this young prince was neither mild nor con- 
ciliatory, and produced several disturbances in the capital. 
Margaret having collected an army of sixty thousand men 
among her partizans. Edward was called away from exercising 



HENRY VI. 103 

petty tyrannical persecutions, to defend his title. Both par- 
ties met at Towton, March 29, 1461 ; Edward and Warwick 
commanded their followers, forty thousand strong; when, 
after a most bloody and dreadful conflict, in which no quarter 
was given, the Lancasterians were totally defeated, and dis- 
persed with terrible slaughter. Thirty thousand men are 
computed to have fallen in the battle and pursuit. 

After this battle the cause of the Red Rose appeared des- 
perate ; Margaret, with her husband and son, fled to Scotland, 
and Edward returned to the metropolis, where he was crowned 
on the 26th of June, 1461. An act of forfeiture and attain- 
der against Henry and his infant son was passed, and was 
extended to the nobility attached to the house of Lancaster, 
whose estates were seized by the crown. Edward, for three 
years, occupied the throne without any important opposition 
from his rival, and exercised his authority in an arbitrary and 
tyrannical manner. Margaret during this period was far from 
inactive, and made great exertions both in France and Scot- 
land to raise an army. She at las-t succeeded in collecting a 
small force, which was completely defeated at Hexham, in 
Northumberland, by the Yorkists, under Lord Montagu. Her 
principal officers were captured and executed, and she, with 
the young prince, only escaped through the humanity of an 
outlaw. Henry was made prisoner shortly after this battle 
and lodged in the Tower, while Margaret escaped to her 
father's court, where she lived for several years in privacy. 

King Edward, secure from farther opposition at present, 
gave himself up to vice and debauchery. His amours became 
so notorious that Warwick, to whom he was indebted for hip 
crown, advised him to marry. Edward consented, and his 
councellor was despatched to Savoy to demand the hand of 
the princess, Bona. The proposals were accepted, and the 
princess prepared to embark for England, when Warwick 
received the information that Edward had, previously to his 
mission, chosen a consort for himself. The object of Edward'? 
choice was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Philip Woodville, and 



104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

widow of Sir John Grey, a Lancasterian, who had fallen at 
the second battle of St. Albans. Edward, struck with her 
beauty, having vainly attempted to seduce her, made her his 
queen. Warwick was highly incensed at this affair, and 
returned to England filled with rage and discontent. He 
formed a plan of revenge, and originated a conspiracy against 
Edward, which included his own brother, the Duke of Clar- 
ence. Warwick, foiled, however, in raising an insurrection, 
was obliged to fly to France, where he, forgetting his former 
rancorous hatred, became reconciled to Margaret, and offered 
her his assistance against their now mutual foe. 

Such was the activity of these new allies, that shortly 
after, Warwick having again landed in England, he found 
himself at the head of sixty thousand men, against whom 
Edward found it impossible to contend. He therefore made 
his escape to Holland (1470), and Henry was once more 
raised to the throne by his new friend, who, by this step earned 
the title of The King-maker. 

The Yorkists, however, were by no means subdued. Ed- 
ward, secretly aided by the Duke of Burgundy, returned to 
England, and was immediately joined by the adherents of 
his party. Warwick, having assembled an army, hastened 
to give him battle, and both parties met at Barnet. The 
Duke of Clarence had deserted, with twelve thousand men, 
from the Lancasterians ; but the brave Warwick, not dis- 
couraged, resolved, although with unequal forces, to hazard a 
battle. The engagement (April 14th, 1471) was long and 
doubtful, but victory at last declaring for Edward, Warwick 
rushed into the thickest of the enemy, and fell covered with 
wounds. Edward, as usual, gave no quarter, and the slaugh- 
ter was dreadful. 

Margaret, at the instigation of her friends, levied fresh 
forces, and advanced into the heart of the kingdom. In ten 
days she had collected forty thousand troops. The active 
and determined Edward pursued her footsteps, and overtook 
this army at Tewkesbury, on the 4th of May, and immediately 



HENRY VI. 105 

attacked it. The Lancasterians, under the command of the 
Duke of Somerset, repulsed Edward's first attack with vigor. 
Somerset, having ordered Lord Wenlock to support him in 
the next charge, advanced beyond his entrenchments, and, 
Wenlock having disobeyed his orders, was routed with great 
loss. Transported with fury, and beholding Wenlock still 
inactive, he ran up to him, and with one blow of his battle-axe 
dashed out his brains. With this battle terminated the hopes 
of the Lancasterians. 

The unfortunate Margaret and the Prince of Wales were 
taken prisoners. This unhappy woman, who had caused and 
suffered so many calamities, was committed to the Tower, 
whence, after lingering several years, she was ransomed by 
Louis XI of France, and died, forgotten and neglected, in his 
dominions. When the prince was brought into the presence 
of the conqueror, Edward demanded how he dared to invade 
his kingdom. That noble youth, then about eighteen years 
of age, boldly replied, " I have entered my father's dominions, 
to avenge his injuries." The cruel Edward, maddened by 
this spirited reply, struck him on the face with his gauntlet, 
while his brothers, the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, 
despatched him with their swords. 

Edward returned in triumph to London on the 21st of May, 
and next morning Henry VI was found dead in the Tower. 
The manner of his death will, in all probability, remain for 
ever a secret ; but it has been generally ascribed to the 
suggestion, if not to the dagger, of Richard, Duke of Glou- 
cester. 

Henry, from a natural imbecility, was unfit to govern ; his 
capacity was so mean, that he was unable to foresee the 
consequences of the counsels given him on the most ordinary 
subjects. He had, nevertheless, many virtues which would 
have adorned a private station ; he was an honest man, 
though a very indifferent king ; he was despised, though never 
hated, by his people. The fatal quarrel, which originated in 
this reign, and which continued nearly thirty years, was 
5* 



106 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

signalized by twelve pitched battles, and the death of eighty 
princes of the blood. The spirit of faction interrupted .the 
enactment of beneficial changes, and prevented the whole- 
some administration of the laws. Parliament, however, lost 
none of its power, as may be seen by the successive con- 
querors always having their titles confirmed by the legislature. 
The elective franchise was now restricted in counties to forty- 
shilling freeholders. Printing was invented in this reign. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

EDWARD IV. 

Born 1441 — Began to reign 1461 — Died 1482 — Reigned 22 years. 

Edward, thus released from his rivals, bestowed rewards and 
honors on his friends, while he punished with death, impris- 
onment, or heavy fines, his enemies. Such of the Lancas- 
terian leaders as escaped his vengeance, fled the country, and 
left him undisturbed master of England. 

Edward had now leisure to indulge himself in those 
debaucheries and extravagances to which he was naturally 
disposed. His court became one scene of riot and intrigue, 
and the monarch extended his favors to all classes of his 
subjects. His amours have become celebrated from the mel- 
ancholy circumstances attending the latter years of one of 
his mistresses, Jane Shore, the wife of a respectable citizen 
of London. 

The king, at the request of his ally, the Duke of Burgundy, 
invaded France in 14*75 ; but finding himself unsupported by 
that prince, Edward soon concluded an advantageous peace 
with the French monarch. 

The queen, who without reproach allowed her husband 
full liberty to pursue his vicious inclinations, by this means 
acquired considerable influence over him, and exercised nearly 



EDWARD IV. 



107 



all the powers of government, which she endeavored to 
strengthen by showering favors on those who supported her 
cause. Gloucester, although to all appearance in her inter- 
est, was secretly raising adherents of his own ; and thus the 
party who succeeded against Henry by union only, caused its 
own downfall by dividing into factions. 

The Duke of Clarence, who was allied by marriage to the 
late gallant Earl of Warwick, notwithstanding his services, 
had never been able to regain his brother's confidence. He 
had long openly and indiscreetly opposed the power of the 
queen, and by his impetuous temper offended Gloucester. 
They now united in hastening his destruction. He was 
accused, on frivolous grounds, of treason in inveighing against 
the conduct of the king. On this charge he was tried before 
the House of Peers, found guilty, and condemned to death. 
Edward, disapproving of a public execution, had him des- 
patched privately in the Tower. The manner of his death is 
doubtful; but there is no foundation for the rumor prevalent 
at the time, that he was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. 

The remainder of Edward's reign is little else than a reca- 
pitulation of his amours and debaucheries. He was siezed 
with a distemper while engaged in preparing for war against 
France, and died on the 9th of April, 1482. He left two 
sons — Edward, who succeeded him, then in his thirteenth 
year, and Richard, Duke of York, in his ninth. His char- 
acter has been thus pithily expressed in the words of an 
accomplished writer: " His good qualities were courage and 
beauty ; his bad qualities, every vice." 



108 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

EDWARD V. 

Born 1470 — Began to reign 1483 — Died 1483 — Reigned three months. 

The late king, on his death-bed, endeavored to arrange the 
differences of his nobles, and appointed his brother Glou- 
cester regent. Edward was under the care of his uncle, the 
Earl of Rivers, who on his father's death brought the young 
king to London. Gloucester, by arresting Rivers and his 
friends, got Edward into his own power. 

Though deformed both in body and mind, Gloucester had, 
during the previous reign, by means of the most consum- 
mate dissimulation, lived on good terms with the entire court. 
Ambitious and cruel, his natural disposition now displayed 
itself, and he began openly to aspire to the throne. Having 
by disgraceful hypocrisy secured the person of the Duke of 
York, the king's younger brother, he lodged them in the 
Tower of London. He began to circulate reports of the 
young prince's illegitimacy, and accused his own mother of 
adultery, by asserting that he alone, of all her sons, was the 
true offspring of the Duke of York ; and, to remove all 
obstacles to his scheme, ordered the execution of their uncle, ' 
Rivers. 

He then endeavored to attach the Duke of Buckingham 
and the Lord Hastings to his designs, and succeeded with the 
former ; but the loyalty of the latter resisted every persuasion. 
The tyrant, unable to seduce him from his allegiance, resolved 
on his death. He summoned this spirited nobleman before a 
council in the Tower, when, laying bare his shrivelled arm, 
he accused the queen and Jane Shore with having caused the 
misfortune by sorcery. Hastings remarked, " If they had 
been guilty of such a crime, they merited the severest pun- 
ishment. " If !" cried the Protector in a rage ; " do you 



RICHARD III. 109 

reply to me.with your ifs ? You yourself are a traitor, and 
the chief abettor of that witch, Shore ; and I swear by St. 
Paul, that 1 will not dine before your head be brought to me ;" 
and striking the council table with his hand, the room was 
instantly filled with armed men. Hastings was seized and 
quickly removed, and the first priest who offered himself 
received his confession ; and a log of wood, accidentally 
lying in the chapel yard, served as a block, on which he was 
beheaded. 

The Protector, by means of Buckingham and Dr. Shaw, a 
celebrated preacher, brought over the citizens of London to 
espouse his cause, and induced the mayor and aldermen to 
repair to Castle Baynard, where he was residing, and offer 
him the crown. Richard at first refused, declaring, with 
assumed astonishment and consummate hypocrisy, that he 
meant to be obedient to his sovereign. Buckingham, as the 
spokesman of the civic authorities, then told him if he refused 
to comply with their wishes, unanimously expressed, they 
would seek some other person, who would be more compliant. 
" I see," said Richard, " that the nation is resolved to load 
me with duties, to the efficient performance of which I feel 
my abilities unequal, and I graciously accept their petition." 



CHAPTER XX. 

RICHARD III. 

Born 1450 — Began to reign 1483 — Died 1485 — Reigned 2 years. 

The first object of Richard after his coronation was, in order 
to ingratiate himself with the nation, to publish a general 
pardon for all persons, and, having seized on the immense 
treasures left by his brother Edward, to reward the services 
of his adherents, and to gain others over to his interest by 
acts of munificence. The usurper, however, could never feel 



110 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

himself secure while his nephews lived, and .he therefore 
determined to get rid of them. 

Richard, having in vain tampered with Sir Robert Braken- 
bury, the governor of the Tower, removed that faithful officer 
from his trust, and appointed in his place, for twenty-four 
hours only, his master of the horse, Sir James Tyrrell, to 
whom he entrusted the murder of the young princes. In the 
night Tyrrell, accompanied by Forest, a hired assassin, and 
Dighton, one of his servants, ascended the staircase leading 
to the bed-room of their innocent victims. Tyrrell watched 
without, while his hirelings entered the chamber, and suffo- 
cated the unhappy children ; and calling in their employer 
to view the dead bodies, by his orders buried them at the 
foot of the staircase.* Tyrrell next day restored the keys of 
the Tower to Brakenbury, and hastened to acquaint Richard 
with the success of his diabolical orders. 

The guilty tyrant, not yet able to satisfy himself of his safe 
possession of the crown, summoned a parliament in January 
1484, which, with disgraceful subserviency, confirmed his 
title, on the grounds both of heritage and election. 

A throne acquired by such means, however, is seldom 
secure. The duke of Buckingham, a man of a restless and 
turbulent disposition, through whose instrumentality Richard 
had reached his present dignity, became disgusted by a trifling 
affront, and began to conspire against him, and to attempt to 
dethrone him. For this purpose he sounded the young earl 
of Richmond, then residing in Brittany, one of the remaining 
branches of the house of Lancaster, and found him eager to 
avenge the wrongs of his family. It was suggested by the 
conspirators that he should marry Elizabeth, the eldest daugh- 
ter of king Edward, and so unite the two houses ; to which 
he willingly assented, and commenced preparing for his expe- 
dition. 

Richard soon discovered this plot, and summoned Buck- 

* The bones of the princes were found there in the reign of Charles II, 
and interred in Westminster Abbey. 



RICHARD III. 



Ill 



ingnam to court, to discover how far it had proceeded. The 
duke, who knew the king too well to trust himself in his 
power, replied by raising the standard of revolt in Wales, 
and calling on his friends to aid him. Buckingham directed 
his march toward the Severn, in order to join those confed- 
erates who had obeyed his call. But that river, from the 
heavy rains, having overflowed its banks and deluged the 
country,* he was by this occurrence detained so long, that 
his Welsh troops, suffering from the want of provisions, dis- 
banded and returned home, and left him with only his serv- 
ants, whom he was obliged to dismiss, and to take refuge in 
the house of Bannister, a dependant on his family, residing 
not far from Shrewsbury. This wretch, seduced by the offer 
of £1,000 reward for the apprehension of Buckingham, 
discovered his unfortunate guest to the sheriff of Shropshire, 
who took him prisoner to Salisbury, where, by Richard's 
orders, he was beheaded, without any trial. 

Richard, having hastened the death of his queen, now pro- 
posed to marry the princess Elizabeth. Her mother, know- 
ing the disposition of the king, gave a feigned consent to the 
marriage ; but at the same time despatched a messenger to 
Richmond, urging him to has-ten his expedition, and prevent 
this consummation of her misfortunes. 

Richmond, alarmed at the intended marriage, immediately 
set out, accompanied by those nobles whose adherence to 
the house of Lancaster had exiled them, and 3,000 soldiers, 
and landed at Milford Haven *7th of August, 1485. As he 
advanced into the kingdom, his forces increased to 7,000 men. 
Richard met him at Bosworth, near Leicester, on the 23d of 
August, with an army of 15,000 soldiers. A battle ensued, 
in which the tyrant displayed great courage, although his 
troops evinced no spirit or bravery. Richard wished to ter- 
minate the contest either by his own death or that of his com- 
petitor, and having fought his way through the enemy, was 

"This great flood was long remembered by the inhabitants of that district, 
as Buckingham's flood. 



112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

on the point of engaging Richmond in single combat, when 
he was overwhelmed by numbers, thrown to the ground, and 
slain. The contest ceased with the death of Richard, and 
Richmond was saluted on the field by his troops as Henry 
VII. 

The depravity of Richard's mind, and the deformity of his 
body, are favorite themes with historians and poets. The 
number and enormity of his crimes have obscured the acute- 
ness of his understanding, and his great personal courage. 
It must not be denied, that several wholesome laws were 
passed in this reign. Richard was of short stature, slightly 
hump-backed, and had a harsh, disagreeable countenance.* 



CHAPTER XXI. 

HENRY VII. 

Born 1455 — Began to reign 1485 — Died 1509 — Reigned 24 years. 

The title of Henry VII to the crown was in every point of 
view defective. The hereditary right was vested in the 
house of York, of which the princess Elizabeth was the 
heiress ; and as one of the family of Lancaster, Henry had 
no claim ; for although he was descended from a natural son 
of John of Gaunt, who was legitimatized, yet that fact barred 
all right of succession to the throne. Henry, owing to the 
sweating sickness! raging in London, deferred his coronation 
until October 1485 ; immediately after the celebration of 
which, he assembled a parliament. Henry informed the 

• Tetchy and wayward was his infancy ; 
His school days" frightful, desperate, wild, and furious ; 
His prime of manhood daring, bold, and venturous; 
His age conformed, proud, subtle, sly, and bloody. 

Shakspeare. 
t This complaint has been supposed to have been an epidemic similar to 
the Influenza of the 19th century. 



HENRY VII. 113 

legislature, that he had summoned them to let his people see 
that he intended to govern by law, though he had acquired 
the throne by the sword, and requested them to settle the 
right of succession, which they did by enacting that the inher- 
itance of the crown should abide in the king. Henry made 
no mention of the princess Elizabeth in his conferences with 
parliament, conscious that any notice of her claims would be 
encouraging a belief that he was aware of the defects of his 
own title ; besides, the king was devoted in his attachment 
to his own party, and disdained to wear the crown as the 
husband of the heiress of York. Henry, however, gratified 
the wishes of parliament and the nation, by marrying in 1486 
the princess Elizabeth, whose beauty and sweetness of dispo- 
sition could not save her from her husband's cruelty and 
neglect. 

Henry's severe treatment of the York party soon produced 
an increased spirit of discontent and animosity ; and to such 
an extent did this spirit grow, that the malcontents wanted 
only a proper leader in order to renew the horrors of civil 
war. A report got circulated, that Richard Duke of York, 
the youngest son of Edward IV, was still alive, and intended 
to assert his right to the crown ; which was generally believed 
by the Yorkists, and gave rise to one of the most curious 
impostures in English history. 

A priest, named Simon, residing in Oxford, instructed his 
pupil, Lambert Simnel, the natural son of a baker, to per- 
sonate the young Earl of Warwick,* the son of the late duke 
of Clarence, brother of Edward IV, who was then confined 
in the Tower, but of whose escape the rumor was general. 
Simon, at the suggestion of those who instigated the impos- 
ture, took his pupil to Ireland, where announcing the pre- 
tended fact, Simnel was received with joy, and, without 
opposition, proclaimed king. Henry, alarmed at this trick, 
had the real Earl of Warwick carried through the streets of 
London. This, however, did not stop the popular belief; for 

* Henry had, after the battle of Bosworth, confined this young nobleman 
to the Tower, 



114 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Simnel was crowned in Dublin by the primate of Ireland. 
Having collected a large army in Ireland, and aided by the 
Duchess of Burgundy, Simnel invaded England, but was 
defeated at Stoke, near Newark, June 16th, 1487, by Henry's 
troops. His followers, Lords Lincoln, Lovell, and other 
nobles, were executed, but Simnel himself was pardoned, 
and employed about the king's kitchen, in the lowest offices. 
Henry now altered his conduct toward the Yorkists, and 
treated them with clemency and respect. 

An insurrection soon afterward arose in the North, owing 
to the increase of taxation, but was put down by the activity 
of Henry. The five succeeding years of this reign were 
occupied by an attempt on the part of Henry to prevent the 
province of Brittany from being annexed to France, which 
terminated, in 1492, in the payment of a large sum of money 
to Henry by the French government, and the settlement of a 
yearly pension on him and his heirs, as the price of his con- 
sent to such annexation. 

During this contest with France, a young man named Per- 
kin Warbeck, an unknown youth, of handsome features and 
courtly deportment, landed from Lisbon at Cork, in Ireland. 
It was soon rumored that he was Richard, Duke of York ; 
and under the name of Richard Plantagenet, he collected a 
number of followers in that country. He accepted an invita- 
tion from Charles VIII of France, who afforded him protec- 
tion, and recognized his claims. Peace, however, being 
concluded between the two countries, he was ordered to quit 
the French dominions, and proceeded to the court of the 
Duchess of Burgundy, who, after some feigned hesitation, 
received him as the legitimate heir of the English crown. 
Perkin ably supported the royal character he had assumed, 
and the number of his adherents daily increased. The dis- 
contented party in England countenanced his fabrication, 
and entered into correspondence with the pretender. 

Henry, ever active and resolute, adopted prompt measures 
to counteract the projects of the conspirators. He endeav- 



HENRY VII. 115 

ored to convince his subjects of the death of the Duke of 
York, by the confessions of Tyrrell and Dighton, two of the 
assassins, who were yet alive ; he exposed the real birth and 
history of Warbeck, proving him to be the son of a converted 
Flemish Jew ; and struck terror into the disaffected, following 
up his discovery of the conspiracy by the trial and execution 
of Lord Fitzwalter, Sir William Stanley, Sir Simon Mont- 
ford, Robert Ratcliffe, and William Daubigny, the principal 
English conspirators. 

Warbeck, after a vain attempt to land, in 1495, with his 
foreign troops supplied by the Duchess of Burgundy, sailed 
in the ensuing year, with such followers as adhered to him, 
for Ireland, from whence, finding the people now adverse to 
him, he bent his course to Scotland. James IV, then king, 
dissatisfied with Henry, gave Warbeck a favorable reception, 
and was so far imposed on by his insinuating address as to 
believe his story, and give him in marriage Lady Catherine 
Gordon, daughter of the Earl of Huntly, and one of the most 
accomplished ladies of her time ; he also promised to assist 
him in securing what he conceived his right by inheritance — 
the crown of England. 

SECTION II. 

King James, in performance of his promise, invaded England 
with a considerable army, but after two unimportant cam- 
paigns, became tired of supporting a cause productive of no 
benefit to himself, and having intimated to Warbeck, in the 
softest terms, that it was necessary for him to leave Scotland, 
he made peace with Henry. 

In order to support the war with Scotland, parliament had 
granted the king a supply, which he levied with so much 
strictness, that the inhabitants of Cornwall and Devonshire 
rebelled, and invited Warbeck to head them, promising him 
support. On his first appearance at Bodmin he was joined 
by three thousand of the populace, and that number was 



116 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

doubled before he advanced to Exeter. The loss of two hun 
dred men in this attempt, and the advance of the gentry of thi 
county, compelled him to retire. The royal army shortly arriv- 
ing, the impostor began to make preparation for battle, but ere 
they were completed, his courage failed, and he took sanctu- 
ary at Beaulieu Abbey, in Hampshire. His wife, Lady 
Catherine Gordon, fell into the bands of Henry ; her modesty, 
beauty,* and distress, touched the heart of the king, who 
sent her to his consort, and settled a pension on her. Perkin 
surrendered himself, on promise of pardon, to the king, was 
conducted through the streets of London, and committed close 
prisoner to his own house. Tired of his confinement, he 
soon made his escape, and fled to the monastery of Thyne ; 
the prior having secured his life, gave him up to safe custody. 
He was compelled to confess his imposture to the people, 
and was then lodged in the Tower. Among his fellow- 
prisoners in the Tower was the real earl of Warwick, with 
whom Warbeck contracted a friendship, and they contrived 
a plan of escape and of revenge against Henry. Their 
designs were detected, and they were both condemned and 
executed. Warbeck, at the place of execution, affirmed the 
truth of every particular contained in the confession of the 
imposture. The fate of the Earl of Warwick excited uni- 
versal compassion ; his birth was his only crime, for which, 
after passing his life in a prison, and being denied all inter- 
course with his fellow-creatures, he finished his life by a 
violent end. 

Henry, in the succeeding years of his reign, neither dis- 
turbed by foreign invasion nor internal insurrections, turned 
his attention to consolidate and extend the power of England 
by foreign connections. He affianced the princess Margaret, 
his eldest daughter, to James the Fourth, of Scotland, the 
royal bride being only in her eleventh year ; the ceremony 
was not completed until three years after. He also, in 1501, 
married his eldest son, Prince Arthur, to Katherine, Infanta 

* Lord Bacon says she added the virtues of a wife to the virtues of her sex. 



HENRY VII. 117 

of Spain. These two alliances are perhaps the most impor- 
tant events in Henry's reign ; the first laid the foundation of 
the future union of the English and Scotch crowns, while 
the second proved the remote cause of the Reformation. 
Prince Arthur, five months after his marriage, fell into a dis- 
temper, of which he died ; but Henry, proud of the alliance 
with the Spanish sovereigns, and fearful of losing the large 
dowry his daughter-in-law had brought his family, procured a 
dispensation from the Pope, and affianced Prince Arthur's 
widow to his second son, Prince Henry, then (a. d. 1503) in 
his eleventh year. 

The queen dying during these prosperous incidents, Henry, 
to whom her death gave little concern, began to think of a 
second marriage, and for this purpose negotiated a lucrative 
matrimonial alliance with Margaret, duchess dowager of 
Savoy. Death, however, prevented the execution of this 
plan ; Henry, who had long been afflicted with gout, feeling 
his end approaching, granted a general pardon for minor 
offences, and paid the debts of all prisoners confined for 
small sums in London. He directed two thousand masses to 
be said for his soul within a month after his decease, and 
ordered them to be paid for at the rate of sixpence per mass. 
He appointed commissioners to make restitution to all whom 
he had injured or oppressed. He expired in his palace at 
Richmond, April 1st, 1509, in the fifty-fourth year of his age, 
and was interred in the chapel at Westminster, which still 
bears his name, and will ever be the pride of British archi- 
tectural genius. 

Henry VII " was a comely personage, a little above the 
common stature, well and straight limbed, but slender. His 
countenance was reverend, and a little like a churchman ; 
and as it was not strange or dark, so neither was it willing 
or pleasing, but as of the face of one well disposed, but it was to 
the disadvantage of the painter, for it was best when he spake."* 

* Lord Bacon's History of Henry VII. 



118 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The reign of this monarch shows that he had hut two 
objects in view ; to retain the crown which he had acquired 
with such extraordinary good fortune, and to accumulate 
riches. Ambition, glory, or pleasure, made no impression on 
Henry ; he commenced his reign by being economical, and 
ended by becoming avaricious. He loved peace * for its own 
sake, but more because it produced him wealth. Henry's 
arts in getting and keeping money were mean and disgraceful ; 
he sold pardon to offenders, and justice was only to be 
obtained from his officers by payment of large sums. Sir 
Richard Empson and Edmond Dudley, two bold and rapacious 
lawyers, were his instruments in thus converting law and 
justice into traffic and rapine. The amount of treasure found 
on his death, in secret places in his favorite palace at Rich- 
mond, amounted to £1,800,000, a sum nearly equal in value 
to £16,000,000 of our present money. 

Henry's character is not relieved by many amiable traits; 
he was an unkind husband, a careless father, and an ungen- 
erous master. He was without friends, and seldom forgave 
an enemy. He possessed a sound, although not a quick 
understanding; the success which attended his measures pro- 
cured him the name of the Solomon j of the age. Fully 
convinced that " the more gentlemen the lower was the book 
of subsidies," Henry diminished the exorbitant power of the 
barons, raised and encouraged the commercial classes, and 
favored every national improvement. To him in a great 
measure we are indebted for the increase of our naval power. 
Whatever might have been his motives, he, in conjunction 
with Parliament, greatly improved the commercial laws of 
England ; seeking more, however, for permanent prosperity 
rather than popular applause ; " for his laws," to use the 
words of Lord Bacon, " whoso marks them well, are deep 

* It was Henry's usual preface in his treaties, that when Christ came 
into the world peace was sang ; when he went out of the world peace was 
Dequeathed. 

f " This Solomon of England, for Solomon was also too heavy upon his 
people in exactions.'' — Lord Bacon. 



HENRY VII. 119 

and not vulgar; not made on the spur of a particular occa- 
sion, for the present, but out of providence for the future, to 
make the estate of his people more and more happy." The 
laws cf Henry were, however, more remarkable for their 
commercial than constitutional tendency. Indeed, from this 
reign down to that of Charles I, parliamentary records are 
destitute of constitutional enactments. The court doctrine 
of the divine right of kings, began now to spring up, and was 
fatal to elective independence. The struggles of Parliament 
against the Crown for the four ensuing reigns were confined 
to the question of supplies alone. Henry not only accepted 
the offers of Columbus to make voyages, which the queen of 
Spain afterward enabled him to perform, but also sanctioned 
and assisted Sebastian Cabot, in the first European expedition 
that ever reached the American continent. 



During the period, which had elapsed since the reign of 
Edward III, the commerce of England had continued to 
increase. The principal direct trade was with Flanders, 
Portugal, Genoa and Venice, and indirectly, through the mart 
of Bruges, with Spain. Much of it was, however, in the 
hands of foreigners, who, residing in London and other towns 
of England, there established warehouses, and also conducted 
an extensive and active internal trade. English wool had 
long been valued at. the highest price; even that of Spain 
was deemed inferior. In the fourteenth century it constituted 
thirteen-fourteenths of all the exports of the country, and 
still was the most important ; but such had been the growth 
of manufactures, that woolen cloth was beginning to rival it 
as an article of export. The cloth alone was made in Eng- 
land. It had to be sent to Flanders to be dyed and dressed. 
The establishment of Banks in various parts of Europe began 
to facilitate the operations of commerce. 

The agricultural interests were still very much injured by 



120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the unsettled state of landed property. The' landowners 
tnemselves, by their frequent irruptions into each other's 
estates, plundering and driving off their tenants, contributed 
to depreciate the value of that upon which their own income, 
depended. And frequent, confiscations at the sole will of the 
sovereign conduced to the same evil, which was, of course, 
increased by the civil wars. The increase of cultivation is, 
however, proved by the fact that grain, in prosperous years, 
appears as an article of export. Coal was gradually coming 
into use for fuel, and thus introducing another important 
source of national wealth. 

The descendants of those who had been slaves in earlier 
times, were now looking to a voice in government, while a 
great improvement had taken place in their way of living. 
The wars of the Roses, though destructive to the nobility, 
were favorable to the liberties of the lower orders. But the 
extinction of slavery had left a great number of aged and 
disabled poor unprovided for ; in consequence of which an 
act was passed in 1391, and confirmed in 1402, that in every 
future appropriation of any parish church, the Diocesan shall 
direct a convenient proportion of the fruits and profits of the 
benefice to be distributed yearly to the poor parishioners — 
the beginning of English pauperism and poor laws. 
? The early springtime of English literature, which had 
opened so beautifully under the auspices of Edward III, was 
discouragingly clouded by the long continued disputes of his 
descendants. The popular veneration for learning, which 
prevailed in the beginning of the fourteenth century had now 
declined ; but the love of knowledge still found an abiding 
place in a few earnest and studious minds. Fortescue and 
Littleton were eminent legal authors, though the latter wrote 
in Norman French, and literature was munificently patron- 
ized by Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, and Earls Worcester 
and Rivers, of whom the two latter were equally distinguished 
by their genius and learning. Several new colleges were 
added to both Oxford and Cambridge, St. Andrews, the 



HENRY VIII. 121 

oldest of Scottish universities was founded about 1410, and 
that of Glasgow in 1450. And the art of printing was intro- 
duced into the island by William Caxton, a short time previ- 
ous to 1477. Thus valuable additions were made to the 
foundation of future literary success ; but of actual produc- 
tion, the fifteenth century has very little to present. King 
James I, of Scotland, is the only true poet, who intervenes 
between Chaucer and the Earl of Surrey The obscuration 
which had fallen upon literature extended also to the other 
fine arts, with the exception of music and architecture ; the 
latter, in its fine old gothic style, came to an end with the 
reign of Henry VII. And chivalry, which reached its cul- 
mination in Edward III, and his son, the Black Prince, 
toward the close of the fifteenth century was sinking into 
empty parade. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

HENRY VIII. 

Bom 1491— Began to reign 1509— Died 1547— Reigned 37 years. 

Henry VIII ascended the throne under the most auspicious 
circumstances and with the brightest prospects. He united 
in his person the claims of the White and Red Roses ; his 
title to the throne was undisputed ; he was at peace with his 
neighbors ; his subjects were advancing in national greatness; 
and his treasury was full. To a fine person he united a con- 
siderable portion of the learning and the accomplishments 
of the age in which he lived. 

The first measures of the youthful monarch, then only 
eighteen years old, were wise and popular. He chose men 
eminent for abilities, to assist him in governing, and delivered 
over to justice the agents of his father's rapacity, Empson 



122 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and Dudley, who were tried and executed. Henry solemn- 
ized, with the approbation of the nation, his marriage with 
his brother's widow, to whom he had been contracted when a 

boy. 

His natural vanity and ambition soon displayed themselves; 
and, eager to perform some memorable action, he was seduced 
by the Pope to declare war against France, a. d. 1511, with 
an intention of conquering that kingdom, and once more 
annexing it to the English crown. This expedition, after a 
few useless sieges, and an expensive display of magnificence, 
involved him in a war with James IV of Scotland, which 
ended 9ih September, 1513, in the memorable fight of Flod- 
den Field, in which James and his principal nobles fell. The 
victory, however, did not produce any political benefits. 

On his return from his French campaign, in 1518, Henry 
indulged his love of magnificence and pleasure, until he 
soon exhausted not only his father's treasures, but also those 
obtained by himself from parliament. He sought a minister, 
willing at once to take on him the cares of government, and 
to supply his extravagant demands, and such an individual 
he found in Cardinal Wolsey. 

Thomas Wolsey was the son of a private gentleman, or, 
according to others, of a butcher, at Ipswich. After receiv- 
ing the benefits of a clerical education, he had been appointed 
in the last reign, one of the royal chaplains ; and having, at 
the instigation of Fox, Bishop of Winchester, been entrusted 
with some secret and delicate negotiations, he executed them 
so successfully, as to attract the favorable notice of his sov- 
ereign. At the time of Henry's accession he was Dean of 
Lincoln, and was shortly appointed almoner to the king, 
which office gave him easy access to royalty. The elegance of 
his manners, and the gaiety of his disposition captivated Henry, 
who frequently resorted with his favorites to the dean's house, 
and Wolsey, on these occasions, threw off the decencies of 
his station, and sang, danced, and caroused, for the amusement 
of his guest. He accompanied Henry to France, and from 



HE\RY via. 123 

that time he became his principal adviser. His rise was rapid 
in the extreme, and he became an object of envy and fear to 
the whole nation. He was made Bishop of Tournay, in 
France, in 1513; of Lincoln, in 1514; and Archbishop of 
York in the same year. In 1515, he was created a cardinal 
and appointed Lord Chancellor. He was the legate of the 
Pope, with extraordinary powers, in England, and on the 
death of each Pope, aspired to the papacy itself. His wealth 
was unbounded: he possessed not only the revenues of his 
own preferments, but farmed the Sees of Hereford and Wor- 
cester, and enjoyed, in succession, the dioceses of Durham 
and Winchester: he also had pensions granted him by the 
Popes, and the sovereigns of France, Germany, and Spain. 
He had an inordinate passion for splendor and magnificence ; 
his establishment contained eight hundred persons ; the chief 
offices were filled by barons and knights, and noblemen and 
prelates attended in his processions. His ambition was 
insatiable ; he was unscrupulous in the means he adopted to 
insure success ; he was arogant to the poor, pliant to the 
powerful, but kind to his dependants. Wolsey was, never- 
theless, a man of consummate address andcommanding abili- 
ties. England, during his administration, was the umpire of 
Europe. He was the patron of learned men, an upright and 
honest judge, and, as a chancellor, a reformer of his court. 
He expended his revenues* in building noble palaces, and 
endowing colleges, and in supporting his princely establish- 
ment. 

Henry, on the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, 
in 1519, at the instigation of Wolsey, became a candidate, 
along with the kings of France and Spain, for the imperial 
throne. Charles of Spain, was, however, the successful 
competitor, and Henry's ambition was curbed, and his min- 

* Wolsey endowed seven lectureships, and founded Christ-church Col- 
lege, in the university of Oxford, and erected another college at Ipswich. 
He built the palace of Hampton Court, which, when furnished, he presented 
to Henry. 

6 



124 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

ister's designs on the papal chair disappointed. Enraged at 
the elevation of the Spanish monarch, Henry wished to enter 
into alliance with France, the king of which country flat- 
tered his designs, and ingratiated himself into his favor, by 
a magnificent display of the pomps and sports of the age, 
at their interview, between Ardres and Guiennes. The place 
where this meeting was held has been long celebrated as 
" the Field of the Cloth of Gold." This interview, how- 
ever, was productive of no advantages to France, for the 
wily emperor labored with so much art and assiduity to gain 
the favor of Wolsey, that he succeeded, and Henry's former 
professions of inviolable friendship to Francis of France 
were soon broken, by the formation of an alliance, offensive 
and defensive, with the Pope and Emperor, against that 
monarch. 

The administration of Wolsey now at its height, was sul- 
lied about this time by a detestable crime. The Duke of 
Buckingham, a descendant of the youngest son of Edward 
III, a weak and vain man, was arrested on some frivolous 
charges, the most serious of which were, having consulted a 
monk about the probable turn of events, and having said 
that if the king died he would be ruler of the land. These 
were construed into an act of treason, in endeavoring to 
compass Henry's death, for which he was tried and found 
guilty by his peers. The high steward, on pronouncing sen- 
tence, shed tears, which Buckingham observing, said, " May 
the eternal God forgive you my death as I do." He was 
beheaded on the 17th of May, 1521, the people venting their 
indignation against Wolsey by openly calling him " The 
butcher's son." 

SECTION II. 

The power of Wolsey continued unabated from 1521 until 
1527. This period was passed by Henry in a succession of 
empty pageants, useless enterprises, and guilty pleasures, 



HENRY VIII. 125 

which completely exhausted the immense supplies received 
from the people ; and it became necessary to find the means 
of carrying on the war against France, as well as his own 
extravagances. The House of Commons, disapproving of 
this application of the public money, refused to grant sup- 
plies. Wolsey soon put Henry on an expedient for raising 
money without the consent of parliament, by way of forced 
loans, under the name of " benevolences," which mode of 
taxation the legislature had repeatedly condemned as illegal. 
The levying of these unlawful taxes produced an excitement 
throughout the kingdom ; the city of London hesitated to 
comply with the demand, and insurrections broke out in sev- 
eral districts. Henry, alarmed at this, suspended his medi- 
tated impositions, and vented his indignation and wrath on 
his minister. Wolsey's supremacy already began to decline; 
the king discovered that the frequent oppositions, on the part 
of the people and parliament, were really made to the cardi- 
nal, and not to himself; and that they disapproved of a war, 
undertaken only* to secure Wolsey's election to the papal 
chair, and in which the interests of the nation were not con- 
cerned. A series of memorable events realised the forebodings 
of the minister's downfall. 

Europe was at this time engaged in a controversy more 
important to mankind than any event subsequent to the 
introduction of Christianity into the world — the Reformation. 
A religious revolution had already occurred in Germany, 
which subverted the established creed, new-modelled the 
clergy, and abolished the papal authority, in several of the 
states of continental Europe ; and it soon reached Great 
Britain, where it animated the cause, which had been slowly 
progressing since the days of Wycliffe. The dissolute lives 
and corrupt manners of the clergy, the rapacious claims for 
temporal power on the part of the Popes, the revival of class- 
ical learning throughout Europe, and the glorious invention 
of printing, are perhaps remote causes of the Reformation. 
The immediate cause was the erection of the cathedral of St. 



126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Peter at Rome. Pope Julius originated the idea of erecting 
a temple worthy of the capital of the Christian world, of 
enormous dimensions, and unrivalled magnificence. The 
project of Julius was eagerly encouraged by his successor, 
Pope Leo X, who- united a polished taste with an ardent love 
of the fine arts. Unable from any funds at his command to 
complete St. Peter's Church, Leo, to raise an adequate sum 
of money, published an indulgence to the northern provinces 
of Germany — a practice frequently adopted in the Catholic 
Church. The sale of these indulgences was committed to 
the Dominican order of Friars. The efficacy of these docu- 
ments was originally grounded on the payment of money 
instead of the often very severe penances which the ecclesi- 
astical law imposed on penitents as the temporal punishment 
of their offences. In process of time, the Church stretched 
its authority beyond this world, by teaching that indulgences 
extended to the purification of minds when in purgatory ; 
until at last the Dominican Friars taught that every purchaser, 
if he paid money on his own account, positively opened to 
himself the gates of heaven; and if on account of the dead, 
instantly released them from purgatory. The collection of 
these contributions was exceedingly lucrative, and had gen- 
erally been conferred on the monks of St. Augustine, who 
now resented the transfer of this source of emolument to the 
Dominicans. Martin Luther, a member of the university of 
Wittenberg, a young friar of the Augustine order, of ardent 
mind, unimpeached morals, and entertaining strong prejudices 
against the Church of Rome, was roused at the exaggeration 
and fiction employed in vending this infallible specific, and 
denounced the falsehoods and abuse from the pulpit, with all 
the ardor and impetuosity arising from sincere piety and 
great learning. The Dominican friars, alarmed, replied with 
warmth to the objections of Luther, and were answered by 
him with still greater energy. The controversy exciting uni- 
versal attention in Germany, the Pope summoned Luther 
before him on a charge of heresy; the Elector of Saxony 



HENRY VIII. 127 

however, protected the reformer. The opposition of the See 
of Rome urged Luther to investigate other doctrines of the 
Church, and 'more particularly obliged him, in self-defence, 
to examine the nature of ecclesiastical power. Finding no 
scriptural authority for the inordinate power of the Church, 
he boldly threw off his obedience to the See of Rome, pro- 
mulgated his own opinions, and in a short time became the 
leader of a powerful band of religious reformers, and the 
founder of modern Protestantism. 

The doctrines of the Reformation, first promulgated in Ger- 
many, soon found their way into England. The spirit of dis- 
affection to the Church, which had originated with Wycliffe, 
notwithstanding persecution and obloquy, had gradually in- 
creased in this country ; and when the writings of Luther and 
his brother reformers were translated, although only secretly 
circulated, they were sought after with eagerness, and read 
with the greatest avidity. The clergy, sensible of their dan- 
ger, exerted all their power to prevent the circulation of these 
books, and especially of the New Testament in English, 
which they represented as tending to the destruction of the 
souls of Christians. Their efforts were ineffectual : all classes 
wished to see them humbled ; their own followers, on account 
of their rapacity and pride ; others from a more correct 
motive, a regard for the truth. Henry, however, brought 
up in the scholastic learning of the times, and fond of 
theological controversy, was zealously attached to the 
then established religion, and at this period its chief 
support. He was greatly displeased with the attacks of 
Luther on his favorite author, Thomas Aquinas, and now 
opposed with all his might the progress of the Reformation. 
He entered into the controversy himself, and wrote a book, 
in Latin, against the great reformer, which procured him 
from Pope Leo the title of " Defender of the Faith," 
a designation borne since by every English monarch to 
the present time. Circumstances, however, induced Henry 
to withdraw his support from the Catholic Church, and 



128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

that pondrous fabric was soon deprived of its now over- 
grown power in England. 

SECTION III. 
Strong attachment to the Church was not the only reason 
which induced Henry to become its champion. Another, 
and a personal motive, induced him ardently to espouse the 
cause of the Pope. He had resolved on obtaining a divorce 
from his queen, Catherine, to whom he had (a. d. 1527) been 
married eighteen years, and by whom he had one daughter, 
the princess Mary. Catherine's beauty now faded, her infirm- 
ities increasing, and all hopes of male issue vanished ; Henry 
began to entertain scruples as to the validity of his marriage 
with his brother's widow. The beauty, graces, and accom- 
plishments of one of the queen's maids of honor, Anne 
Boleyne, had touched the susceptible heart of Henry. This 
lady was connected with the noblest houses of the kingdom ; 
her mother was the sister of the Duke of Norfolk, and she 
herself had been educated in the court of France. Henry 
created her father Viscount Rochford, and proved the influ- 
ence of her charms by valuable presents. When, however, 
Henry ventured to disclose to her his real object, she indig- 
nantly replied, that, though she might be happy to be his 
wife, she would never condescend to become his mistress. 
This reply only increased the passion of the king, and af- 
forded an additional motive to secure a divorce. 

Henry's scruples respecting his marriage were founded on 
that law of Moses,* which, according to common interpreta- 
tion, forbids a man to marry the wife of a deceased brother ; 
and his advocates urged that this being an express command 
of God, could not be dispensed with by the Pope. It is cer- 
tain that Henry VII was convinced of the illegality of the 
alliance he had formed for his son, and charged him on his 
death-bed never to consent to its celebration ; besides which, 
the States of Castille, when treating respecting the proposal 
* Lev. xviii, 16- 



HENRY VIII. 129 

of a marriage between the Emperor Charles and Henry's 
daughter Mary, insisted on the illegitimate birth of that 
princess. 

Henry, after failing in his attempts to persuade the queen 
to consent to a divorce, made formal and repeated applica- 
tions to the Pope ; but his holiness, while he professed his 
desire to comply with the king's request, was awed by the 
power of Henry's former ally, but present enemy, the empe- 
ror, and practiced various artifices to elude the royal demands. 
Wolsey, who had a difficult game to play, followed the exam- 
ple of the Pope ; he professed to believe the marriage to be 
illegal, and was solicitous to gratify his master, yet afraid to 
offend the Pope. Even should Henry succeed in obtaining 
a divorce, a marriage with Anne Boleyne by no means suited 
the cardinal's views : he was desirous of marrying Henry to 
a French princess, in order to secure the interest of the mon- 
arch of that country in his election for the papacy; and 
actually threw himself on his knees before the king, and 
intreated him to desist from so unworthy a project as an alli- 
ance with the Boylene family. The Pope, however, in com- 
pliance with the king's solicitations, commissioned Cardinal 
Campeggio as his legate at London, to hold, with Wolsey, a 
court to try the validity of the marriage ; but the proceedings, 
when nearly concluded, were adjourned by the legate, to 
whom Wolsey professed absolute obedience ; and the Pope 
determined that the cause should be removed to Rome for 
his own judgment. 

Wolsey was alike the object of dislike both to the friends 
of Catherine and Anne Boleyne, who now united to under- 
mine his influence with Henry. The former considered him 
the principal author of their mistress's troubles, while the 
latter attributed to him the delay of their hopes in seeing 
Anne queen. Henry, too, suspected his fidelity in conducting 
the affair. The cardinal's fall was inevitable ; indeed he 
had long foreseen the termination of his power. On the 9th 
of October, 1529, a prosecution was commenced against him 
6* 



130 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

for procuring bulls from Rome without the king's permission. 
On the 17th of the same month he was deprived of the chan- 
cellorship, which was bestowed on Sir Thomas Moore.* 
Having confessed his offence against the statute of Praemunire, 
of which he was only technically guilty, his lands, goods, and 
chatties were forfeited, and his person declared to be at the 
mercy of the king. In the month of February, he was called 
on to resign all his ecclesiastical preferments, which, except 
the Sees of York and Winchester, were shared among the 
friends of Anne Boleyne. He retired into the country, and 
solaced himself with the comforts of religion ; he did not, 
however, enjoy his repoae long. On the 4th of November, 
1530, he was arrested on the charge of treason, and ordered 
to be brought to London. 

Wolsey's health would not allow him to travel with expe 
dition ; he was seized with a dysentery on his route, and 
feeling his strength rapidly decline, he said to the Abbot of 
Leicester, as he entered the gates of the monastery, " Father 
abbott, I am come to lay my bones among you." He was 
immediately carried to bed ; on the second day of his illness, 
he addressed one of the officers attending him, requesting to 
be commended to his majesty, whom he declared to be a 
prince of most royal courage, concluding in these well-known 
words : " And, master Kyngston, had I but served my God as 
diligently as I have served my king, he would not have given 
me over in my gray hairs. But this is my just reward for my 
pains and study ; not regarding my service to God, but only 
my duty to my prince." He expired the next mornins, (SOth 
of November 1530) in the sixtieth year of his age. What- 
ever might have been Wolsey's faults, the conduct of Henry 
toward him previous to his death is n every respect inde- 
fensible. It is certain he had great influence over his mas- 
ter's mind, and during his administration the extravagances 
of the king were restrained within certain bounds. 



* This illustrious man, the ornament of his age, had declined to support 
the divorce. 



HENRY VIII. 131 

After the death of Wolsey, the king, by the advice of Dr. 
Cranmer, who was afterward raised to the See of Canterbury, 
had the question of his marriage debated before all the Universi- 
ties of Europe, and by dint of money succeeded in procuring 
favorable opinions from them. He also, by a prosecution, 
obtained an acknowledgment from the clergy that he was the 
supreme head of the Church of England ; and, having once 
more in vain applied to the Pope for his sanction, he, in 1532, 
married Anne, and thus settled the disputed question. Cran- 
mer, as primate of England, afterward pronounced the former 
marriage to have been illegal, and declared the king's mar- 
riage with Anne to be valid. The Pope, however, reversed 
Cranmer's divorce, and threatened the vengeance of the 
Church on Henry, should he persist in living with Anne. The 
unfortunate and persecuted Catherine, finding farther opposi- 
tion vain, spent the remainder of her days at one of the royal 
manors, in privacy and peace. 

SECTION IV. 

The Pope persisting in his opinion that the king's first mar- 
riage was good, Henry resolved to separate altogether from 
the Church of Rome. In the year 1534, he was declared head 
of the Church by parliament, and the authority of the Pope abol- 
ished in England. The nation entered with eagerness into these 
measures, and took an oath called the oath of supremacy, and 
thus overthrew the power of the Church of Rome in England. 
Henry, however, adhered most strictly to the doctrines of the 
Catholic Church, and thus brought his subjects into a dilem- 
ma, which exposed all parties to prosecution at his pleasure. 
It was alike a capital crime to acknowledge the Pope's su- 
premacy, or to profess the reformed principles. Religious per- 
secutions ensued ; many were put to death for entertaining 
opinions opposed to the established Church, while others were 
executed for venturing to question the king's measures.* 

•Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, were the most 
remarkable victims to Henry's new policy : they both suffered for refusing 
to take the oath of supremacy. 



132 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 

This persecution of the adherents of the old faith excited 
the indignation of the pontiff, who prepared a bull excommu- 
nicating Henry, absolving his subjects from their allegiance, 
and foreign powers from their alliances. Henry, in revenge, 
authorised his chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, whom he 
raised to the newly-created office of the king's vice-regent, to 
send commissioners to examine into the state of the monas- 
teries in England ; which they reported to be in a most cor. 
ruptand depraved state. Cromwell gradually suppressed the 
various classes of religious houses, and seized on their pos- 
sessions, at that time amounting to a large proportion of the 
landed property of the kingdom. Their revenues computed 
at £30,000 per annum, were confiscated to the king's use, 
besides their plate and other property, amounting to £100,000 
more. This confiscation was most unpopular in those places 
where the ancient faith prevailed. Individuals invested with 
the most sacred functions, unfit for worldly labor, driven forth 
from their habitations, (where they freely exercised at least 
one Christian virtue — charity), excited feelings of sympathy 
for the suffers, and of detestation toward their oppressors. 
A formidable insurrection, known by the name of the Pil- 
grimage of Grace, was the consequence in the northern coun- 
ties, and was only suppressed by the superior power of the 
king, and by the promise of a general pardon. 

Henry, though possessed of a strong mind, was fickle and 
inconstant ; after living with Anne in great conjugal felicity 
for some years, and having a daughter by her, the princess 
Elizabeth, he was captivated by the charms of a young beauty 
of his court, J-ane Seymour, daughter of Sir John Seymour. 
This new passion extinguished all his former affection for 
Anne, and love was succeeded by jealousy. The qneen, who 
was a zealous promoter of the reformation, was hated by its 
opponents; who, observing the king's new passion, took 
occasion to inflame his jealousy by putting the worst con- 
struction on the harmless but unbecoming liberties to which 
she was addicted. She was accused by her own sister-in-law, 



HENRY VIII. 133 

Lady Rochford, a woman of most abandoned character, of a 
criminal correspondence, not only with three gentlemen of 
the king's bed-chamber, Norris, Weston, and Brereton, and 
Smeaton, a musician, but also with her own brother, Lord 
Rochford. Her supposed paramours were arrested, and she 
herself committed to the Tower. In this situation she was 
deserted by all her former friends but Archbishop Cranmer, 
who, by his intercession on her behalf, incurred the royal 
displeasure. Of her innocence there can not be a reasonable 
doubt, although Smeaton, on his trial, pleaded guilty to the 
charge. Norris, Weston, and Brereton were tried on the 12th 
of November, 1536, and convicted. Three days afterward, the 
House of Lords assembled for the trial of the unhappy queen. 
She was brought into court, attended only by a few women, 
counsel having been denied her. She conducted herself with 
great dignity and composure, and repelled the charge of adul- 
tery with modesty, temper, and firmness. She was found 
guilty, and sentenced to be beheaded. On this decision being 
prouounced, she raised up her hands, and exclaimed, " Oh 
Father and Creator! Oh thou who art the way, the truth, 
and the life ! thou knowest I have not deserved this death.'* 
The other individuals who had been convicted, with her bro 
ther who was tried and condemned on the same day a"s her- 
self, were executed two days before her. When she was 
brought to the scaffold, she was surrounded by those who, a 
short time before, had graced her court ; her looks were cheer 
ful, and she never appeared more beautiful. Observing her 
women in tears, she comforted them ; and, turning to the spec- 
tators, said, " I am come here to die, and not to accuse any 
man, nor to speak any thing whereof I am accused. I pray 
God to preserve the king, and send him long to reign over 
you ; for a gentler and more merciful prince there never was ; 
and to me he was ever a good, a gentle, and sovereign lord. 
If any person will meddle in my cause, I require them to judge 
the best." She was then beheaded by the executioner of 
Calais, who had been brought over for the purpose. Little 



134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

regard was paid to her remains, not even a coffin being pro- 
vided. Her body was put into a chest, and instantly buried 
in the Tower Chapel. 

Two days after her execution, Henry married her rival, 
Jane Seymour, and presented her to his whole court as his 
royal consort. His marriage with Anne was declared null, 
and her daughter bastardized. 

SECTION V. 

Queen Jane Seymour's natural disposition was more agreea- 
ble to the humor of Henry than that of his two former wives ; 
not so grave and serious as the mild and gentle Catherine, 
nor so gay as the unfortunate Boleyne. She transported the 
king with joy by presenting him with an heir to his crown. 
Prince Edward ; which, however, was soon checked by her 
untimely death, twelve days after the birth of the young prince, 
24th October, 1537. 

The natural violence of Henry's temper broke out on the 
discovery of a conspiracy, fostered, it is said, by his near 
relative, Cardinal Pole, for the purpose of raising himself to 
the throne by a marriage with the princess Mary; and, in 
consequence, several of the nobility suffered for treason. 

Henry, having separated himself from the Church of Rome, 
it became necessary to regulate the religions faith of the 
nation, which he determined to do by his own standard. For 
this purpose, after a delay of seven years, he once more (a. 
d. 1539) assembled a parliament, which, with a degree of 
subserviency hitherto unknown in that body, coincided in the 
views of the monarch, and passed " An Act for abolishing 
Diversity of Opinions," and also the celebrated Act of the 
Six Articles, better known as " the Bloody Statute." These 
enactments reduced the essential articles of religion to six ; 
namely, the real presence, communion in one kind, the per- 
petual obligation of vows of chastity, the celibacy of the 
clergy, the utility of private masses, and the necessity of 



y 



HENRY VIII. 185 

auricular confession. A denial of the real presence was 
punishable with death by fire, and did not admit of abjuration. 
A denial of any other articles, even though afterward recanted, 
was punishable by the loss of goods, and imprisonment for 
an indefinite time. Obstinacy, or a relapse into old opinions, 
subjected the delinquent to death. Commissioners were 
appointed to inquire into these heresies and irregularities, 
and the criminals they denounced were to be tried by a jury. 
It was, however, permitted every individual to have in his 
family a copy of the Bible, which had been recently trans- 
lated. Under this law many conscientious and sincere men 
suffered imprisonment. 

Henry having been a widower more than a year, was 
induced to contract a match with Anne, sister of the Duke of 
Cleves, a Protestant princess, of whom a flattering portrait 
by Holbein had been shown him. Finding, however, that 
she was very different from what she had been represented, 
he conceived a strong dislike to her person, and fulfilled the 
contract only from political motives, treating her merely as 
a friend. Henry determined to get rid of her; and, having 
raised an objection to the legality of the marriage, because 
there had been a former treaty between the queen and the 
Duke of Lorraine, and alleging that he had not consented 
really to the match, his obsequious parliament annulled the 
marriage, and Anne, on being secured a settlement of £3,000 
a year, freely consented to the divorce. 

The king, shortly after his marriage with Anne, had fixed 
his affections on Catherine Howard, niece of the Duke of 
Norfolk. The nation at this time was divided into two par- 
ties, one of which, headed by Gardiner, bishop of Winches- 
ter, and the Duke of Norfolk, adhered to the old religion ; 
the other, under the guidance of Cranmer, Latimer and Fox, 
favored the new opinions. Cromwell, Earl of Essex, Hen- 
ry's minister, was supposed to favor the latter. He was hated 
by the nobility, on account of his low extraction, and hi 
powerful station ; and he was equally obnoxious to the clergy 



136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and the people, as the instigator of Henry's rapacity toward 
the Church. Norfolk had long been at enmity with the vic- 
ar-general, and, finding that his influence was great in conse- 
quence of the king's attachment to his niece, determined to 
ruin his opponent. Cromwell was accused of heresy and 
treason, and, without examination or evidence, was con- 
demned, unheard, to death, and executed within a month. 
Thus fell Cromwell, a victim to the capricious passions of a 
tyrannical master: he was a bold, daring, and faithful min- 
ister ; he connived at, if he did not instigate, the plunder of 
the Church ; and fell himself a victim to his own illegal 
measure of attainder for treason without trial. 

Henry's marriage with Catherine Howard followed his 
divorce and Cromwell's death, and gave rise to so furious a 
prosecution, not only against the Protestants who offended 
against the " bloody statute," but also the Catholics who 
denied the king's supremacy, as to have occasioned a for- 
eigner to remark, that " In England, those who were against 
the Pope were burned, and those who were for him were 
hanged." 

Henry had not been many months married to Catherine 
Howard, before he received information of her dissolute life 
previous to her marriage, and was induced to believe she still 
continued her licentious conduct. Her criminality, both 
before and after marriage, being fully proved, she was tried 
and condemned to death, and beheaded on Tower Hill, 12-th 
of February, 1542. The infamous Lady Rochford, the instru- 
ment of the death of queen Anne Boieyne, her brother, and 
her own husband, Lord Rochford, who had conducted Cathe- 
rine's secret amours, justly suffered with her. 

Henry was as fickle in his religious opinions as he was to 
his wives, and he required the nation to adopt whatever opin- 
ions pleased him. At the commencement of these changes 
in his creed, he required his subjects to acknowledge seven 
sacraments ; he then limited them to three, and now again 
increased them to seven. He had formerly conceded a 



HENRY VII. 13*2 

perusal of the translated Scriptures to all classes; he now per- 
mitted it only to gentlemen and merchants, adding, " that it 
be done quietly and with good order." At one time a firm 
adherent of the Pope, he now erased his very name from the 
ritual, and wished his people to forget that such a personage 
existed. 

SECTION VI. 

Henry, on the death of James V of Scotland, projected the 
scheme of uniting that kingdom to England, by marrying his 
only son, Edward, to the young queen, and a treaty to that 
effect was actually concluded. This happy prospect was, 
however, soon overturned by the intrigues of the Regent of 
Scotland, and the violent temper of Henry, who, on the first 
appearance of opposition, declared war against the Scotch. 
He ravaged the country, and inflamed the national spirit by 
this violent incursion; and, as was happily remarked, "did too 
much if he wished to solicit an alliance, but too little if he 
intended to make a conquest." 

The king now married Catherine Parr, the widow of Lord 
Latimer, and a lady of mature age. He again revived the 
hopes of the reformers, by some favorable measures : permitted 
the Litany to be celebrated in the vulgar tongue, and added 
a prayer " to save us from the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome 
and from all his detestable enormities." 

Henry now became unwieldy from his corpulency, and 
peevish and irascible from disease : he was dropsical, and had 
a sore on one of his legs, arising from the bad humors of his 
body. In this state it was dangerous to approach or converse 
with him ; and on one occasion the queen nearly fell a vic- 
tim to his irritability. Catherine favored the principles of the 
reformation, and ventured to start objections to some of the 
king's theological arguments, and supported them with firm- 
ness and ability. Henry gave orders for her imprisonment 
and impeachment. The queen, alarmed at her danger, resolved 



138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

to correct her error and regain his favor. When she again 
waited on him, and the king proposed to renew the dispute in 
which they had been engaged, she modestly declined the com- 
bat, saying it did not become a weak woman to dispute with 
one, who, from his wisdom, was entitled to dictate to the 
whole world. This flattery revived his affection, and he loaded 
with abuse those who advised her prosecution. Having made 
this fortunate escape, the queen avoided all measures calcu- 
lated to renew the dispute with so dangerous an antagonist. 

The cruelty of the king increased with his years, and he 
became more and more ungovernable as his end approached. 
The last objects of his tyranny were the Duke of Norfolk, and 
his son, the accomplished Earl of Surrey. Their enemies 
inspired the king with the notion that Surrey aspired to the 
throne by an alliance with the princess Mary, and that a con- 
spiracy was forming to seize the reins of government during 
his illness, and place them in the hands of these powerful 
subjects. They were arrested and committed to the Tower. 
The earl of Surrey, the most polished scholar and nobleman 
of his age, was tried on a charge of having quartered on his 
shield the arms of Edward the Confessor, which had been 
actually assigned to him by a decision of the herald's office- 
The court pronounced this sufficient evidence of his aspiring 
to the throne ; he was convicted, and on the 19th of January 
1547, perished on the scaffold. The father was attainted by 
the peers, without trial, and condemned to die on the 29th 
of January, but was happily reprieved by his persecutor's 
timely death, on the 28th of January. Although it had been 
for some time apparent to all about him, that the king could 
not survive, yet none dared to give him the least intimation 
of his approaching end. At length, when it was evident that 
he had not many hours to live, Sir Anthony Denny ventured 
to make the solemn intimation, and to ask him if any clergy- 
man should be sent for. Henry replied, " Cranmer ;" but 
before he could arrive, the king was speechless. Being de- 
sired by Cranmer to give some sign that he died in the hopes 



HENRY VIII. 189 

of salvation, he pressed his hand, which he held, and expired, 
in the fifty-sixth year of his age, leaving three children : by 
his first wife, the princess Mary ; by his second, the princess 
Elizabeth ; and by his third, prince Edward. 

The character of Henry is best seen in his life and actions ; 
his natural abilities were improved by study, and he is enti- 
tled to be called learned ; he had a great esteem for litera- 
ture, and granted pensions to many eminent scholars ; he was 
brave, frank, and liberal, and possessed a good understanding. 
His crimes and errors are of the darkest hue, and appear to 
have arisen from the ungovernable impetuosity of his pas- 
sions. When enraged, to use his own words, " he never 
spared man in his anger or woman in his passions." Even 
those actions of his reign which produced the reformation, 
are indefensible, originating in a spirit of revenge, and per- 
petuated by plunder and cruelty. 

The absolute power which Henry exercised over the lives, 
liberties and consciences of his people, arose from the influ- 
ence he had gained over the parliament. This influence was 
owing to religious divisions among his subjects ; to the ex- 
tinction, in the preceding reigns, of those powerful barons 
and prelates, who successfully opposed the power of the 
kings, and energetically asserted constitutional privileges ; 
and to the liberties which Henry took with the freedom of 
debate in the House of Commons, frequently putting down 
refractory " varlets," by reprimanding or sending them threat- 
ening messages. It cannot be doubted that Henry's power 
in the Commons was also greatly augmented by his granting 
or reviving the privilege of sending representatives to parlia- 
ment to thirty-two counties and boroughs. In this reign one 
hundred and eighty constituencies returned three hundred 
and thirty-six members to the lower House. The freedom of 
our government in this reign might appear to flourish, but cer- 
tainly it did not exist in practice ; and the subjects of succeed- 
ing monarchs experienced how fatal it is, under any circum- 
stances, by any means, or under any pretence, to admit en- 
6* 



140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

croachments on the constitution ; and how vain it is, when 
these encroachments are once admitted, for the service of some 
present turn, to prescribe limitations to the exercise or dura- 
tion of them. 



Literature having continued long in a state of suspended 
animation, under the reign of Henry VIII began to revive, and 
several names of distinction were added to the list of English 
authors. The unfortunate Surrey was the first promise of 
reviving poetry, and Cranmer, Ridley, Tunstal, Cheke, Lina- 
cer and Sir Thomas More still throw the luster of their repu- 
tation over several departments of prose : while Scotland 
could boast of two of the sweetest of her poets, Douglas and 
Dunbar, the latter the greatest of his age, and surpassed by 
few of any succeeding time. It was a period eminent for learn- 
ing throughout Europe. Education was zealously fostered 
by the establishment and enlargement of schools and colleges, 
and the rapid increase of printed publications, and a general 
activity prevailed, constituting, in England, a perfect con- 
trast to the intellectual torpor, which marks the preceding 
century. Nor was learning confined, as formerly, to the pro- 
fessions. It was fashionable, in respectable society, and 
many noble ladies contributed to make it so by their own 
eminent attainments in classical literature. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

EDWARD VI. 

Bom 1537— Began to reign 1547— Died 1553— Reigned 7 years. 

Edward VI succeeded his father on the throne of England 
when he was only nine years of age. So subservient to Henry 
had the legislature become, that they vested in him the right, 
in former times exercised by the peers, of settling the admin- 
istration of the goverment during the minority of his sue- 



EDWARD VI. 



141 



cessor, which Henry, by his testament, entrusted to sixteen 
executors, whom he had nominated, and fixed the majority 
of his son at eighteen years of age. The first proceeding of 
this body was to choose the Earl of Hertford, afterward 
Duke of Somerset, Protector of the kingdom, and guardian 
of his nephew, the young king. 

Somerset had always been favorable to the new doctrines 
and under his influence the progress of the reformation was 
irresistible in England. The bloody statute was repealed ; 
the liturgy was reformed with moderation and prudence ; the 
ancient superstitions were abolished without violence ; and 
the worship and discipline of the Church brought nearer to 
the Lutheran. Images were removed from churches, priests 
permitted to marry, private masses prohibited, sermons en- 
couraged, and confession pronounced a matter of indifference. 
While Somerset thus erected the basis of the Church of 
England on the ruins of Catholicism, he was by no means 
indifferent to civil liberty. In the first year of his adminis- 
tration he procured the abolition of an absurd act, which 
gave to royal proclamations the force of laws, and several 
other enactments grievous to the nation. Somerset's chief 
adviser in the reformation was Cranmer, and his great oppo- 
nents, Bishops Gardiner and Bonner, whose violence drew 
on them the indignation of the council, and they were com- 
mitted to prison. The education of the youthful monarch 
was entrusted to those only who professed the Protestant 
faith. 

It was, however, impossible that changes so great and 
unexpected could be brought about without some opposition, 
which, in the present instance, arose from the lower classes. 
Destitute of that relief in seasons of necessity, which the 
charity of the monasteries afforded, the populace were often 
reduced to the greatest distress. They also suffered severely 
by the practice of enclosing commons and wastes, the bene- 
fits of which they had enjoyed from time immemorial. Mis- 
ery is ever productive of discontent and complaints, and the 



142 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

people in Devonshire and Norfolk had recourse to arms, and 
were punished for their rebellion by martial law. 

The wise and prudent administration of Somerset did not 
pass without opposition from other members of the council, 
to whom, elated with his high office, he had paid too little 
attention. He disgusted the people, by appropriating to 
himself and his friends large portions of the confiscated 
Church lands, to the impairing of the royal revenues, and 
gave great offence to all parties by the parade he made of his 
wealth, erecting a magnificent palace called Somerset House. 
John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, a man of considerable abil- 
ity, but artful, insinuating, and intriguing, took advantage of 
the protector's unpopularity, and excited a strong feeling 
against him. The confederacy formed against Somerset, on 
charges of the most trivial nature, deprived him of his office 
and committed him to prison, on the 13th of October, 1549, 
from whence, however, he was shortly released, on payment 
of a larse sum of money. Warwick, now chief director of 
affairs, under the title of Lord High Admiral, filled the posts 
vacated bv his rivals, and promoted his own creatures. 

Immediately on his accession to power, Dudley's mind 
was filled with the most ambitious projects. He created him- 
self Duke of Northumberland, and seized on the revenues of 
the See of Durham. Although Somerset had been disgraced, 
yet his ambition had not left him, and his popularity was 
reviving. Northumberland, apprehensive of his power, re- 
solved on his final ruin. He had him accused of high trea- 
son and felony, for which offence he was unjustly condemned, 
and suffered on the scaffold, on the 22d of January, 1552. 
Northumberland now aimed at altering the succession to the 
throne, and placing the crown on the head of his son. He 
represented to Edward, then in a declining state of health, 
that his sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, who were appointed 
heirs by his father's will, in failure of direct issue to inherit 
the throne, had both been declared illegitimate by the legis- 
lature ; and that the Queen of Scots was excluded from the 



EDWARD VI. 143 

succession by that will also, because she was an alien. The 
descendant of Henry's sister, the French Queen, was, in such 
case, the next heir, who was Frances, married to Gray, for- 
merly Marquis of Dorset, but now, through the interest of 
Northumberland, created Duke of Suffolk. But Frances had 
no ambition to ascend a disputed throne, and consented to 
transfer her right to her eldest daughter, Lady Jane Gray, 
between whom and his son, Lord Guildford Dudley, Northum- 
berland had effected a marriage. This plan was recommended 
to the approbation of the sick prince, by a powerful appeal 
to his religious opinions. The reformation, the establishment 
of which Edward had earnestly at heart would be set aside, 
should his eldest sister, who was a sincere but bigotted Cath- 
olic, succeed to the throne. Edward, surrounded by North- 
umberland's creatures, persuaded that he had the same power 
as that exercised by his father, determined to appoint his 
cousin, Lady Jane Gray, his successor, and drew up with his 
own hand a sketch of the new destination of the crown, 
which he commanded the judges to put into a legal form. 
They hesitated to do so, declaring it would subject them to a 
charge of treason. Northumberland, on hearing this, threat- 
ened and called them traitors, and declared that he was ready 
to centend with any man in so just a quarrel. A pardon 
passed the great seal to exempt the judges from punishment, 
on which the instrument was prepared and signed, which set 
aside the claims of Mary and Elizabeth, and. settled the 
crown on the heirs of the Duchess of Suffolk, who had already 
consented to forego her own claim. 
^ The young king's health after this visibly declined, and all 
signs of recovery vanished. The royal physicians were dis- 
missed by the advice of Northumberland, and the king was 
committed to the care of a female empiric, who aggravated, 
instead of alleviating, his sufferings. Under her management 
the worst symptoms of consumption rapidly increased, and 
he expired at Greenwich, on the 6th of July, 1553, in the 
sixteenth year of his age. 



144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The mild and gentle virtues of Edward, his docility, and 
his abilities, render his character a pleasing theme for con- 
templation. His zeal for that which he believed to be the 
purest form of Christianity, was only equalled by his affection 
for his subjects. During his reign, Protestantism was intro- 
duced as the religion of the country, without that religious 
persecution which too frequently disgraces the change of 
national faith. While he filled the throne, no Roman Cath- 
olic suffered death on account of his opinions. 

The evils arising from sudden changes were severely felt 
by the nation during Edward's reign. Poverty and discontent 
prevailed among the people, owing to the suppression of reli- 
gious houses, the extension of enclosures of waste grounds, 
and the new practice of letting lands at rack rent. Severe 
enactments against vagrancy and mendicity were passed, but 
without any beneficial effects. From this cause the morals 
of the nation were corrupted. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

MARY. 

Born 1516— Began to reign 1553— Died 1558— Reigned 5 years. 

The death of Edward was carefully concealed by Northum- 
berland for two days, after which preparations were made for 
the coronation of Lady Jane Gray. It was with great diffi- 
culty her friends were able to prevail upon her to accept the 
crown they offered. She at length suffered herself to be 
conveyed to London and proclaimed Queen. The intelli- 
gence of her brother's death, and Jane's succession, being 
transmitted to the Princess Mary, she immediately asserted 
her right, as the eldest daughter of Henry VIII, and prepared 
to support it with arms. Mary was proclaimed at Norwich ; 
her title was generally supported throughout the nation ; and 






MARY. 145 

her partizans daily increased. Northumberland determined 
to enforce Edward's will in favor of his daughter-in-law, and 
expected to be assisted by the Protestants, in cousequence 
of the religious opinions of the time. In this, however, he 
was disappointed, as he was generally disliked ; and as Mary, 
in the event of her accession to the throne, had promised 
that she would make no change in the laws of Edward, res- 
pecting religion, they were less anxious about the success of 
the reformation. Mary's supporters assembled in great num- 
numbers at Framlingham Castle, in Suffolk, where she had 
fixed her residence. Northumberland took the field himself 
to oppose her, but was deserted by his soldiers on his depart- 
ure from London ; and the council, trembling for their safety, 
declared in favor of Mary. She was proclaimed queen in 
the metropolis ; and Jane, after reigning ten days, resigned the 
crown with greater pleasure than she had accepted it. North- 
umberland endeavored to protect himself by cordially joining 
in proclaiming Mary, at Cambridge ; but this did not prevent 
him being taken prisoner to London, where he was tried and 
executed. Sentence was, at the same time, pronounced 
against Lady Jane and her husband, but no intention existed 
of carrying it into immediate execution. 

Mary, on her accession, commenced her reign with mode- 
ration ; she released her friends from prison, remitted a sub- 
sidy granted to Edward, rewarded those who supported, and 
issued a general pardon to those who had opposed her. 
Shortly after her coronation, Mary's zeal in favor of her own 
faith broke out. She raised Gardiner to the post of prime 
minister, deprived the Protestant bishops of their Sees, and 
restored them to Catholics ; and the Protestant Archbishops 
Cranmer and Holgate, and the Bishops Coverdale, Hooper, 
Ridley, and Latimer, were thrown into prison. As the brave 
and inflexible Latimer passed through Smithfield, on his way 
to the Tower, in anticipation of his final doom, he remarked, 
" Smithfield has long groaned for me." Parliament, which 
assembled in October, 1553, by its measures paved the way 



146 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

for the re-introduction of the Roman Catholic religion. A 
matrimonial alliance was entered into between Mary and 
Philip, Prince of Castile, son of the Emperor Charles V, 
whose bigoted attachment to the Church of Rome was noto- 
rious. This produced a general apprehension for the liberty 
and independence of the nation, to obviate which, it was 
stipulated, that the administration of affairsshould be entirely 
vested in the queen ; that no foreigner should be capable 
of holding any office of trust, nor any innovation be made in 
the laws or customs of the kingdom. 

These, and other conditions favorable to the English inter- 
ests, by no means satisfied the nation, who looked on them 
only as so many attempts to enslave them, and a general 
rebellion was threatened. A partial insurrection broke out, 
headed by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic gentleman 
of influence, but his partisans, finding that they were not 
joined by any persons of distinction, dispersed, leaving Wyatt 
to his fate. He surrendered, was tried, and executed, and 
his followers were treated with great cruelty. 

The Duke of Suffolk having also made an unsuccessful 
attempt to rouse the midland counties, Mary let her venge- 
ance fall on his daughter and her husband. On the 8th of 
May, 1554, the queen signed a warrant for the execution of 
Lord Guilford Dudley and Lady Jane Gray, and on the 12th 
of the same month it was put in force. Dudley had requested 
a last interview with his beloved wife ; but she, fearing it 
would unfit them for the scene through which they were to 
pass, declined it, hoping that they would shortly meet and 
be united in a happier state. He was first led to execution; 
she saw him conducted to the scaffold, from the window of 
her apartments. Jane resisted, with mildness and firmness, 
all attempts to convert her to the Catholic faith. She forgave 
her father, who was the immediate cause of her death, in a 
letter breathing the purest affection, in which she says, " My 
guiltless blood may cry before the Lord — mercy to the inno- 
cent !" She also addressed a Greek letter of consolation to 



MARY. 147 

her sister, and on the morning before her execution, she 
wrote in her note-book three short sentences in Greek, Latin, 
and English, declaring, " that if my fault deserved punish- 
ment, my youth, at least, and my ignorance were excusable. 
God and posterity will show me favor." She was executed 
within the Tower, as it was apprehended that her youth and 
beauty might excite the compassion of the populace ; and 
thus the vengeance of Mary was appeased without danger to 
the state. On the scaffold she declared she had sinned in 
assuming the title of queen ; that she had too much loved 
herself and the world, for which she was justly punished by 
Heaven ; but, blessed be God, who had led her to repentance. 
After loudly repeating the fifty-first Psalm, and crying out. 
" Lord, into thy hands 1 commit my spirit !" she submitted 
her neck to the executioner, while the people about her shed 
tears. Thus died Lady Jane Gray, in her seventeenth year. 
Her learning, profound and varied, included both ancient 
and modern literature ; her religious feelings, deep and sin- 
cere, were founded on an intimate acquaintance with the 
sacred scriptures. Her reason was clear and strong, and her 
disposition gentle, but firm. 

The Princess Elizabeth incurred the displeasure of the 
queen, owing, it is said, to an attachment evinced toward 
her by Courtenay, Earl of Devonshire, who had received the 
attentions of Mary herself with indifference. In order to 
remove her rival, Mary offered Elizabeth in marriage to the 
Duke of Savoy; and she, declining the proposal, was com- 
mitted close prisoner to Woodstock, and remained in con- 
finement for the remainder of this reign. 

The cruelty and bigotry of Mary rendered her so unpopular, 
that to disable the people from farther resistance, their arms 
were seized. Mary, notwithstanding her attachment to the 
See of Rome, assumed, for a time, the title of Supreme Head 
of the Church. In a parliament, held in 1554, Gardiner, her 
minister, proposed that she should be invested with power to 
dispose of the crown, and appoint her successor. The 
1 



148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

legislature, however, obsequious to her in other respects, did 
not choose to gratify their sovereign by reducing their country 
into a province of Spain. 

Mary's whole thoughts were now occupied with the com- 
pletion of her marriage with Philip of Spain ; her anxiety 
on the subject visibly impaired her health, and she became 
apprehensive lest her person should become so injured by 
time and sickness, as to become disagreeable to her future 
consort. The marriage was solemnized in July, 1554 ; but 
as Philip had espoused her, merely with a view to become 
king of England, he no sooner found this an empty title, than 
he showed the utmost indifference to his queen. He passed 
most of his time at a distance from her, in the Spanish prov- 
inces of the Netherlands, and seldom wrote to her except 
when he required money. 

SECTION II. 

Mary being, by the death of the Lady Jane, and the imprison- 
ment of Elizabeth, securely seated on the throne, now pro- 
ceeded to adopt those measures best calculated to restore 
papacy and extirpate protestantism. Instigated by Gardiner, 
she determined to put in execution the laws lately revived 
against heretics, and for three years filled England with scenes 
of horror, disgraceful to human nature, which have stamped 
the memory of the queen and her ministers with infamy, the 
effects of which, as exciting a prejudice against the Catholic 
religion, are scarcely yet obliterated. 

Hooper, the expelled Bishop of Gloucester, and Rogers, a 
distinguished Protestant clergyman, were the first martyrs to 
the reformed faith ; they were both destroyed by fire, as here- 
tics. These executions were followed up by those of Saun- 
ders and Taylor, two other divines, who displayed the greatest 
zeal for their religion. Gardiner, finding himself disappointed 
in his expectations, that the punishment of these four cler- 
gymen would terrify the reformers into a recantation of their 
belief, transferred to Bonner, now Bishop of London, the 



MARY. 149 

commission to extirpate heresy, which could not fail in 
drawing down the public hatred ; for if the zeal of Gardiner 
was cruel, that of Bonner was furious. 

Bonner was exhorted, by a letter from Mary, to proceed 
in his cruel task without intermission. Persecution now raged 
with unabated fury. Persons were not convicted of publicly 
teaching tenets contrary to the established religion, but were 
arrested on mere suspicion of heresy, required to subscribe to 
the Roman Catholic articles of faith, and were generally 
condemned for refusing to acknowledge the real presence of 
our Saviour. Among the most memorable of these faithful 
martyrs were, Ridley, Bishop of London ; Latimer, Bishop 
of Worcester; and Cranmer, Primate of England. The 
two former prelates were brought to the stake, at Oxford, on 
the 1st of November, 1555, where their behaviour evinced a 
firmness and endurance of torture that would have done 
honor to the primitive martyrs. Ridley was one of the ablest 
champions of the Reformation. His piety, learning, and 
solidity of judgment, were admired by his friends, and dreaded 
by his opponents. The night before his execution he was 
exceedingly joyful, and invited the Mayor of Oxford to be at 
his wedding next day. The venerable Latimer, now sinking 
from age and infirmities, was simple in manners and devout 
in mind. He had interfered little with the disputed points 
of theological controversy ; but in his sermons had arraigned 
human vices with a plainness, which, though unadorned with 
eloquence, found its way to the heart, and caused sinners to 
tremble before him. When they met at the stake, they em- 
braced, and comforted each other. Ridley said, " Be of good 
cheer, brother, for God will assuage the flame, or enable us 
to bear it ;" while Latimer prophesied, " That they two should 
light such a candle in England, as by God's grace would 
never be extinguished." After listening to a sermon from a 
furious bigot, which Ridley offered to refute, but was denied 
the privilege of speaking, unless he wished to recant, they 
prayed, and tied themselves to the stake. To shorten their 



150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

sufferings, bags of gunpowder were suspended from their necks. 
The aged Latimer expired almost the moment the flames were 
kindled ; but Ridley was doomed to surfer the most excrucia- 
ting torments ; his legs were entirely consumed before the 
fire reached his vitals. He repeatedly exclaimed, " he could 
not burn;" on hearing which, a by-stander opened the pile, and 
an explosion of gunpowder terminated his dreadful sufferings. 

Cranmer, having from the window of his prison witnessed 
the execution of his friends, his constancy wavered, and, 
hoping to save his life, in a moment of pardonable weakness, 
signed a recantation of his faith. Notwithstanding this 
acquiescence, the cruel Mary signed his death-warrant, and 
on the 21st of March, 155G, he was, without previous warn- 
ing, brought to the stake. 

When he reached the place of execution, he recovered his 
former courage, and displayed a resolution worthy of his 
cause. He addressed the audience, lamenting his weakness, 
and praying for forgiveness, recalled his recantation, rejected 
the papal authority, and confirmed with his dying breath the 
reformed doctrines. His discourse was frequently interrupted 
by the clamors and reviling of the mob. The fire being kind- 
led, he stretched forth his right hand into the flame, exclaim- 
ing, " that the same hand which had so impiously erred in 
subscribing his recantation, should be the first sufferer in the 
flames;" and, with amazing firmness, held it out till it was 
consumed ; sometimes saying " that unworthy hand ;" and 
often crying out, " Lord Jesus receive my spirit." He expired 
after a short time, and though his body was reduced to ashes, 
his heart was found entire. Cranmer has been justly desig- 
nated the first patriarch of the Protestant Church of England. 
His disposition has been said to have been too pliant ; and 
yet, perhaps, it is owing to his mild and conciliatory meas- 
ures, that the Reformation made such rapid advances in Eng- 
land. His goodness and kindness of heart, in spite of his 
infirmity, have endeared his memory to all who reverence 
unaffected piety and sincere religion. 



MARY. 151 

During the period of this disgraceful barbarity, two hundred 
and seventy-seven persons were brought to the stake, includ- 
ing five bishops, twenty- one clergymen, eight lay gentlemen, 
eighty-four tradesmen, one hundred servants and laborers, 
fifty-five women, and four children ; besides those who were 
punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. 

Such cruelty and oppression were so abhorrent to the feel- 
ings of the nation, that they produced the very opposite effects 
which were anticipated, and forwarded, instead of checking, 
the progress of the Reformation. The people believing them 
to have been fomented by Philip, the Spanish influence be- 
came odious to them, and the queen, who had long been in a 
declining state of health, was universally hated. 

Mary, in order to gratify the wishes of her husband, declared 
war against France. This measure involved the nation in 
difficulties ; and the loss of Calais, which had been in pos- 
session of the English for two hundred years, filled the king- 
dom with murmurs and complaints. The loss of Calais so 
seriously affected the queen, that she was heard to say that 
the name of the town would be found engraven on her heart, 
when dead. The probability of her sister's accession, and 
the consequent danger to the stability of the Roman Catholic 
faith, combined with her husband's inattention and evident 
dislike to her, were the causes which undermined her health, 
and accelerated her death, which took place on the 1 *7th of 
November, 1558. The only good quality Mary possessed, 
was a sincere attachment to the faith in which she had been 
educated, and even this was neutralized by her extreme big- 
otry. She had a narrow understanding, and a cruel disposi- 
tion, and her whole character was a complication of vices, 
which her sex rendered more detestable.* 



* This reign, in parliamentary and legal phraseology, is styled the reign 
f Philip and Mary. 



162 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

ELIZABETH. 

Born 1533 — Began to reign 1558 — Died 1603 — Reigned 44 years. 

Immediately on the death of Mary, Parliament recognized 
the princess Elizabeth as her successor, and she ascended the 
throne in the twenty-fifth year of her age, amidst the joyful 
acclamations of the whole nation. Elizabeth, educated in 
retirement and adversity, summoned to her assistance the 
able and experienced Sir William Cecil, formerly secretary 
to Edward VI. Acting under his advice, the young queen 
commenced her reign by safely and gradually re-establishing 
the reformed faith. She recalled the Protestants, who had 
been forced to fly from her sister's cruelty, and set free all 
who were confined on account of their religious opinions. 
The change of the national creed she delayed until it received 
the sanction of Parliament, which she summoned in the first 
year of her reign. 

On the meeting of the Legislature, the statutes passed in 
the late reign for the support of the ancient faith, were 
repealed, the supremacy of the Church was annexed to the 
crown, and the reformed liturgy, with some improvements, 
re-introduced. The public system of religion was thus, 
without violence or clamor, altered to nearly the very state 
in which it is now established. The House of Commons 
strongly recommended the queen to marry ; in reply to which 
advice, Elizabeth thanked the members, expressed her pleas- 
ure that they had not undertaken to appoint either the time 
or the person, and added, that by her coronation she had be- 
come the wife of the nation, and would regard her people as 
her children. 



ELIZABETH. 153 

Elizabeth found, at the commencement of her reign, that 
the kings of France, Scotland, and Spain, were secretly con- 
spiring with the Pope against her kingdom. Without allies 
to support her in such a crisis, she sought for aid in the affec- 
tions of her subjects, and in the wisdom of her administration. 
Although she did not fear her opponents, neither did she 
exasperate ihern. She conciliated their good-will, and nego- 
tiated a treaty with France advantageous to herself, and 
made peace with Scotland. 

Although Elizabeth's title to the throne was almost uni- 
versally accepted by her own subjects, yet the validity of it 
was disputed by other princes, owing to the act of bastardy 
passed after the execution of her mother. In default of Eliz- 
abeth, the next heir to the crown was Mary, Queen of Scots, 
who was now (1559) in the seventeenth year of her age. She 
had been educated from her youth in the court of France, 
and had married the Dauphin of that country, afterward 
Francis II. The government of her native kingdom was in the 
hands of her mother, the queen dowager, who filled Scotland 
with convulsion and insurrections by her persecutions of the 
Protestants. The Scotch reformers, thus harrassed and an- 
noyed, began to question her right to the regency ; and, 
finding their supplications for freedom from molestation pass 
unheeded, they resolved that, during the queen's minority, 
the government ought to be vested in the Parliament, and that 
the regent was only the chief administrator, and accountable to 
it. The regent, having determined not to part with her power 
without a struggle, applied to France* for support against 
her opponents, and received substantial assistance in a body 
of four thousand soldiers. The leaders of the Protectant 
party, known in the history of Scotland as the Lords of the 
Congregation, enraged at this outrageous attempt at despotic 
power, laid their complaints before Elizabeth, and asked for 

* The ambition of France at this period was so great, that it became a 
proverb, that ; ' France could neither be poor nor peaceable for three years 
together." Elizabeth herself used to say, " Choose the French for your 
friends, but not for your neighbors." 



154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

her advice and encouragement. Elizabeth had conceived a 
violent jealousy against the young Queen of Scots, as her 
most formidable rival, which was greatly heightened at this 
period by the assumption, by Mary and her husband, of the 
royal title and arms of England. Determined to incapacitate 
her opponents from executing any design against her, the 
queen readily listened to the grievances complained of by 
the Lords, and entered into an alliance to support them. To 
enable them to drive the French out of their country, Eliza- 
beth sent eight thousand of her troops to their assistance, with 
which they invested Leith, in which town the forces of the 
regent were. Mary, alarmed at these proceedings, endeav- 
ored to purchase Elizabeth's neutrality between her mother 
and her subjects, by an offer to restore the town of Calais 
if she would withdraw her forces from Scotland ; to which the 
queen sarcastically replied, " That she did not value that 
fish-town so much as the quiet and security of all Britain." 
The vigorous conduct of Elizabeth soon brought about a treaty 
advantageous to herself and her friends. By this engagement, 
known as the Treaty of Edinburgh, it was stipulated, that the 
French should evacuate Scotland, that the queen of Scots, 
(now, a. d. 1560, the queen of France also) should desist 
from assuming the title or bearing the arms of England, and 
that toleration should be granted to the Protestants of that 
kingdom. Mary, however, refused to confirm the treaty, and 
thus make a formal renunciation of her pretensions, unless 
she were declared next in the succession to the English crown, 
which Elizabeth indignantly refused. Thus stood the nego- 
tiation, when Francis, Mary's husband, suddenly died, after a 
reign of a few months : her mother, the regent, was now also 
dead. Under these circumstances, Mary personally assumed 
the government of Scotland in 1561. 

The policy of Elizabeth, directed chiefly by Cecil, during 
these affairs, cannot be too highly appreciated ; she became 
the arbitress between the Scots and their queen, preserved 
the dignity of her own kingdom, and, by defending the liberty 



EL[ZABETH. 155 

and espousing the cause of the Scotch Protestants, she sepa- 
rated Scotland from its ancient connection with France, and 
united it to her own interests. 

Elizabeth, for some time, left the queen of Scots sufficiently 
occupied in attempting to arrange her domestic contentions, 
and turned her attention to the regulation of her own affairs. 
The English nation was at this time divided into three reli- 
gious and political parties ; the most numerous and most 
important of which, the Churchmen, professed the same reli- 
gion as herself, and considered the ecclesiastical changes as 
perfect. The Puritans sought farther reformation, by agita- 
ting the minds of the people ; while the Catholics did not 
yet despair of ^-establishing their faith, if they could succeed 
in seating the queen of Scots on the throne. On the Church- 
men, that is, on the bulk of the nation, Elizabeth's security 
depended. She endeavored to suppress the Puritans by 
severe, and perhaps indefensible measures. The Catholics, 
however, were a more formidable body, including many per- 
sons of rank and wealth. They were supported by all the 
great continental powers ; by the French government, from 
the alliance with Mary ; by Philip of Spain, from a refusal 
of Elizabeth to marry him ; and by the Pope, from a wish to 
recover his lost authority in England. 

The state of Ireland, too, was a cause of much uneasiness 
to Elizabeth. Since the conquest of that island, it had been 
governed by Viceroys, or Lords Lieutenant, in the name of 
the monarchs of England. Now, although the sovereignty of 
England was virtually acknowledged by the Irish chiefs, who 
were numerous and important, and possessed great power 
over the natives ; yet, as they asserted and exercised the right 
of avenging the wrongs which they pretended to receive from 
each other, Ireland was incessantly a scene of confusion and 
bloodshed, which the inadequate forces of the viceroys were 
unable to suppress. These contentions of the native nobility 
reduced the royal authority to a mere shadow, required by 
them only when necessary to protect them against their 



156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

enemies. The natural aversion which the inhabitants of a sub- 
dued country have to their conquerors was now considerably 
increased, by Elizabeth injudiciously forcing on that nation 
the Protestant faith. The general reformation had not 
extended its happy influences to Ireland. The attachment 
of the Irish to their ancient faith was extreme ; and the 
attempt to convert them by violent measures to the new 
doctrines rendered them sure abettors of all conspiracies to 
subvert the authority of Elizabeth in England, as well as in 
their own island. 

SECTION II. 

During the minority of Charles IX, France was distracted 
by religious dissension. The queen-mother, who was a Cath- 
olic, had obtained the regency, but the king of Navarre had 
been appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The 
bold and ambitious family of Guise, of which the regent was 
a member, were the leaders of the Catholic party, while the 
Protestants recognized the Prince of Conde as their chief. 
The Guises had been the principal opponents of Elizabeth 
on her accession ; and she, in order to diminish their exorbit- 
ant power, during the civil and reJigious warfare that devastated 
France, gave support and encouragement to the Protestants, 
or, as they were called, the Huguenots. In the course of this 
war, the supplies which Mary, queen of Scots, was entitled, 
in right of her dower, to receive from France, were stopped, 
and those Scotch who were in the service of the Catholic 
party treated with contumely. These proceedings irritated 
and annoyed the young queen. Elizabeth, observing this 
dissatisfaction, endeavored to seduce Mary from her connec- 
tion with France. She proposed that her rival should marry, 
and recommended for her choice one of her own subjects, 
Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, offering, in case she 
assented, to procure a parliamentary recognition of her right 
of succession to the English crown. The Guises, on the 
other hand, promised her, if she refused the match, and 



ELIZABETH. 15? 

adhered to the French interest, ample reparation. Mary 
was for a long time doubtful how to decide, when she met 
Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, the eldest son of the Earl of 
Lennox, a Scotch noble ; a mutual attachment ensued, and, 
in spite of the remonstrances of Elizabeth, Mary married 
Darnley in 1565, and, with consent of some of her peers, 
declared him king. This marriage, which proved disastrous 
to the parties themselves, and dishonorable to the nation, 
convinced Elizabeth that Mary had still designs on the Eng- 
lish crown, and incensed her beyond measure. She now 
more than ever encouraged Mary's opponents in Scotland, 
at the head of whom was her natural brother, the Earl of 
Murray. Murray had by every means in his power opposed 
his sister's marriage, as he indulged a faint hope of succeeding 
to the throne of Scotland on her demise ; failing in this, he 
found means to excite discord between her and her husband. 
Mary's passion for Darnley, sudden in its origin, soon 
amounted almost to indifference. This indifference turned 
into hatred, on the murder of her paramour, David Rizzio, 
by Darnley and Lord Ruthven, almost in her very presence. 
Not many months after this, the house in which Darrwley 
resided, near Edinburgh, was blown up with gunpowder, and 
his body was found lying dead in the garden. The death of 
Darnley was universally attributed to James Hepburn, Earl 
of Bothwell ; and the queen, by her subsequent marriage 
with him, encouraged the supposition, that she had been 
privy to this dreadful crime. 

No sooner had Mary married Bothwell, (now created the 
Duke of Orkney) who was universally detested, than the 
Scotch nobles in Murray's interest flew to arms, seized on 
the person of the queen, imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle, 
compelled her formally to resign the crown in favor of her 
infant son, James, and then appointed Murray regent of the 
kingdom during his minority. Elizabeth appeared openly to 
disapprove of these proceedings, and threatened to avenge the 
queen, but she secretly encouraged them. 



158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Mary, after eleven months' captivity, escaped from Loch 
Leven, through the assistance of George Douglas, her keeper's 
brother, and declared that her renunciation of the crown was 
void, having been extracted from her by force. She was soon 
joined by her friends, and in a few days found herself at the 
head of six thousand men. The experienced and disciplined 
troops of the regent routed her forces, and destroyed her last 
hopes, at the battle of Langside. Mary, afraid to trust her 
person in the hands of her own subjects, fled to England, and 
claimed the support of her cousin, Elizabeth, who promised 
her protection if her cause deserved it, but, as she was reputed 
guilty of many heinous crimes, refused to admit her to an 
interview. 

Elizabeth, by the most plausible professions of friendship 
and regard, induced Mary to admit her to be umpire between 
her subjects and herself; to which suggestion Murray assented, 
having no means to maintain his power in Scotland unless 
supported by the English. In 1568, an extraordinary investi- 
gation into the cause of the revolt of the Scotch took place 
before Elizabeth's commissioners at York, but was productive 
of «o beneficial results to her. The English queen afterward 
required Mary either voluntarily to resign her crown, or to 
associate her son with her in the government, leaving the 
administration of affairs in the hands of Murray. This Mary 
refused to do, and was in consequence unjustly detained a 
prisoner in England. She was at first confined in Bolton 
Castle, but as the inhabitants in that neighborhood were 
Catholics, she was removed to Tutbury, and placed in the 
custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury 

Elizabeth continued to support the Protestant cause on the 
Continent; she received the exiles from Philip of Spain's 
cruelties in the Netherlands with kindness, aided with pecun- 
iary resources the Huguenots in France, and from this period 
may be looked upon as the head of the Protestant faith in 
Europe. The protection of Philip's persecuted subjects in- 
creased that monarch's dislike toward her, and her treatment 



ELIZABETH. 159 

of the Catholic Mary caused the Pope to hurl the thunders 
of the Church against her, and absolve her subjects from their 
allegiance. 

Mary's imprisonment was the cause of various insurrections 
and conspiracies ; the first of which was ihe rebellion of Per- 
cy, Earl of Northumberland, and Neville, Earl of Westmore- 
land. Both these noblemen were adherents of the ancient 
faith, and were encouraged to revolt by the Catholic states. 
They advanced into Durham, but, on the approach of the 
royal troops, under Sussex, the insurgents dispersed and fled. 
Northumberland was taken, and suffered for his treason, but 
Westmoreland escaped to Flanders, where he entered the 
Spanish service, and died commander of a regiment. 

The Duke of Norfolk, who aspired to the hand of Mary, 
with several other nobles, was privy to this attempt, and had 
entered into a conspiracy against the queen, in which it is 
positively asserted that Mary was a participator. The timely 
discovery and arrest of Norfolk disconcerted the plot. Nor- 
folk was brought to trial, on a charge of holding communi- 
cations with Catholic princes who had undertaken to land in 
England with an army, and he was adjudged guilty of treason. 
He was condemned to death, and, after a great deal of hesita- 
tion on the part of the queen, executed. 

The discovery of America by Columbus had given a fresh 
impetus to the spirit of maritime discovery, and about this 
time, expeditions for that purpose became very popular in 
England. Several were fitted out, and districts hitherto un- 
known were now opened to the enterprise of British com- 
merce. The most celebrated voyages were those under the 
command of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the elder brother of Sir 
Walter Raleigh, Martin Frobisher, John Davis, John Haw- 
kins, and Francis Drake. 



160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SECTION III. 



The events of several succeeding years of Elizabeth's reign, 
although important, are scarcely of sufficient interest to be 
narrated in detail. Parliament continued to recommend her 
to marry : among her suitors were several foreign princes, 
Catholic as well as Protestant, all of whom she dismissed, 
sometimes even with hope : some of her own subjects also 
intruded their offers. She continued to be the main support 
of the Protestant cause ; and on the inhabitants of the Nether- 
lands throwing off the government of the cruel and bigoted 
Philip, they elected her their Protector. The continued con- 
spiracies of the Catholics led to the formation of a general 
association of men of all degrees and conditions in England, 
who bound themselves by oath to prosecute to the death those 
that should attempt any thing against the queen. The results 
of one of these plots, constituting a blot on the memory of 
Elizabeth, render its details imperative. 

Three Catholic priests had instilled into one Savage the 
notion, that it would be a meritorious act to kill Elizabeth, 
and had made him vow to do so at Easter, 1586. Ballard, a 
Jesuit of the seminary of Rheims, being acquainted with Sav- 
age's vow, came over to England in the disguise of a soldier, 
under the name of Captain Fortescue, to arrange a plan for a 
proposed invasion of England by the Spaniards, at the mo- 
ment when the best of the queen's troops should be assisting 
the Protestants in the Netherlands. He discovered his design 
to Anthony Babington, a Catholic gentleman of property, 
residing in Derbyshire, who had been recommended to the 
queen of Scots as one worthy of her confidence, and who had 
been already in correspondence with her. By the manage- 
ment of Babington, several Catholics of consequence joined 
in the plot, the principal features of which were to be the as- 
sassination, or, as the conspirators termed it, " the tragical 
execution" of Elizabeth, at the same time as the intended 



ELIZABETH. 161 

invasion. The sagacious and searching eye of Walsingham, 
Elizabeth's minister, soon discovered, through the medium of 
a spy, the conspiracy ; he delayed, however, until the arrange- 
ments were nearly complete, to seize on the conspirators. 
Mary was privy to the proposed scheme, which, if successful, 
would release her from confinement, and once more place 
her on a throne. To expedite the invasion, it was intended 
to send Ballard to confer with the Spanish embassador in 
Paris : on this being discovered to Walsingham, he had him 
arrested, Babington and the other conspirators, finding the 
affair was known, absconded ; but, after lurking in the woods 
and fields for some days, were apprehended, condemned, and 
executed. 

Elizabeth, on this opportunity, determined to rid herself 
of the cause of all these conspiracies and insurrections, by 
bringing Mary to trial. She had been removed, in Septem- 
ber, 1580, to Fotheringay Castle, in Northamptonshire: her 
long confinement had reduced her to a deplorable state of 
bodily infirmity ; the beauty of her youthful years had disap- 
peared, and disease had rendered her once handsome face 
disgusting to behold. 

The queen issued a special commission to forty-two of the 
nobility and chief men of the nation, for the trial of Mary. 
The majority of the commissioners proceeded, in October, 
1586, to Fotheringay, for this purpose. After some delay, 
Mary resolved to appear before her judges, " out of a desire 
to clear her innocence," provided her protest against the 
competency of the tribunal were received and allowed. The 
commissioners assembled in the presence chamber of the 
castle on the 14th of October, and when Mary was introduced, 
the queen's counsel, Mr. Sergeant Gandy, stated the charges 
against her. The accusation consisted in an alleged corres- 
pondence with Babington and persons in foreign countries, 
proving her participation in a plot to excite an invasion and 
rebellion, and to assassinate the queen. Copies of two let- 
ters from Mary to Babington were produced, and also one 



162 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

from Babington to her. Mary denied all knowledge of Bab- 
ington and his designs, and accused Walsingham of forging 
the correspondence. That Mary was aware of the projected 
invasion and rebellion, and the design against the life of 
Elizabeth, cannot be doubted ; it is, however, by no means 
so clear that she had that identical participation for which 
she was tried. The conduct of the queen, a forlorn and 
unassisted woman, before her judges, is worthy of the highest 
commisseration ; the modesty of her behaviour, and her 
presence of mind, were unrivaled. Sentence of death was 
passed on the 25th of October, and Parliament addressed 
Elizabeth, urging her to carry the sentence into immediate 
execution. 

These extraordinary proceedings attracted the notice and 
excited the wonder of neighboring nations ; the sovereigns 
of which remonstrated with Elizabeth, against the execution 
of the queen. After the sentence had been passed, Elizabeth 
remained in a state of irresolution as to how she should act; 
arising not from any feeling of pity, but from a regard to her 
own reputation. In this state, after a delay of six weeks, 
she one day ordered Davison, her secretary, to bring her the 
death-warrant, and signed it, with a jest on Walsingham's 
hatred of the queen of Scots. " Go," said she, " and tell 
all this to Walsingham, who is now sick, though I fear he 
will die for sorrow when he hears it." Davison gave the 
warrant to Lord Burleigh, who, by the advice of the council, 
dispatched the Earls of Shrewsbury, Kent, Cumberland, and 
Derby, to whom it was addressed, to Fotheringay. Elizabeth, 
when too late, pretended that although she had signed the 
instrument, she did not intend to have it put in force, and 
feigned great regret, and dismissed and punished Davison. , 

These noblemen, with two executioners, arrived at Fother- 
ingay, on the evening of the 7th of February, 1587, and 
requested Mary to prepare for death early on the following 
morning. She received the awful announcement with un- 
shaken firmness, and called God to witness that she had never 






ELIZABETH. 163 

sought Elizabeth's death : she comforted her servants, who 
were overwhelmed with distress, commanding them " rather 
to rejoice that I am so soon to be freed from a world of mis- 
eries." On the fatal morning, she dressed herself in state, 
and retired to pray, until the sheriff informed her that all was 
ready. She proceeded, accompanied by two of the Earls, and 
supported by her domestics, into the hall, where a scaffold 
had been erected, on which were placed a chair, a cushion, 
and a block, covered with black cloth. When she had 
ascended, Fletcher, Dean of Peterborough, urged her to 
renounce her opinions ; Mary firmly replied that she had been 
born and educated in the Roman Catholic faith, and now 
would die in it. After some short prayers, Mary recommended 
the Church, her son, and the queen, to God's protection, and 
declared she freely forgave her enemies as she hoped herself 
to be forgiven. She then began to disrobe herself, and the 
executioners offering their assistance, she put them back, say- 
ing, she was not accustomed to be served by such grooms. 
While her women with tears were performing that office, she 
affectionately kissed them, signed them with a cross, and, 
with a smile, bid them cease to weep, for now she should 
rest from all her sorrows. Having covered her face, and lay- 
ing herself down to the block, she repeated the psalm, "In 
thee, Lord, do I put my trust, let me never be confounded ;" 
then stretching forth her body, she many times said, " Into 
thy hands, Lord, I commend my spirit ;" and at two strokes 
her he-ad was severed from her body. The Dean cried out, 
" So let the enemies of queen Elizabeth perish," to which 
the Earl of Kent replied "Amen," while the people answered 
with sighs and lamentations. Her body was embalmed, and 
interred with regal obsequies in the Cathedral of Peterbor- 
ough. The execution of her cousin is a foul blot on the 
memory of Elizabeth, not to be effaced by her pretended sor- 
row in clothing herself and her court in mourning, or by her 
mean hypocrisy in banishing Cecil from her presence, and in 
ruining Davison by imprisonment and fines. 



164 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The domestic storms were scarcely allayed, when others 
more formidable threatened the nation from abroad. While 
Elizabeth had been aiding the insurgents against the authority 
of Philip, in the Low Countries, he was actively intriguing 
with the malcontents in England and Ireland. He landed 
nine hundred soldiers in Ireland, where the inhabitants, dis- 
contented with the English government were ready to join 
any invader, but by the active measures of the Earl of Or- 
mond, they soon surrendered. The queen on the other hand, 
encouraged the attacks of her subjects on the Spanish settle- 
ments in South America. 

A vague rumor had pervaded Europe, of vast naval prepa- 
rations by the king of Spain, for the conquest of England ; 
Elizabeth determined to strike ihe first blow, and dispatched 
Sir Francis Drake in 1587, with a strong squadron ; and 
sailing direct to Cadiz, he destroyed about one hundred ves- 
sels laden with ammunition and stores. By this expedition 
the intended invasion was retarded twelve months, during 
which time Elizabeth prepared for the storm about to burst : 
the English seamen were taught to despise the unwieldy 
vessels of the enemy ; and the nation inspired with confidence 
in its own strength. 

SECTION IV. 

The preparations of Philip for his intended conquest, were 
carried on with redoubled vigor ; and the Spaniards, confi- 
dent of success, had already denominated their navy, the 
Invincible Armada. Never before had a more splendid fleet 
been seen, than that which sailed from the Tagus, on the 25th 
May, 1588 : it consisted of one hundred and thirty ships, 
with twenty caravals and ten salvers, for the service of the 
others: there were on board twenty thousand soldiers, nine 
thousand marines, two thousand slaves, and nearly three 
thousand great pieces of cannon. Toward the end of June, 
another armament of eighty sail left Lisbon to join them. 



ELIZABETH. 165 

Every port in the king's extensive dominions had been put 
into requisition to fit out this fleet ; it was manned by the 
ablest sailors and soldiers, and commanded by the most 
renowned admirals. To oppose this overwhelming force, the 
queen had only thirty four men of war, to which the city of 
London furnished thirty- three ships, and different gentlemen 
eighteen; and to these were added forty-three hired vessels, 
and fifty-three coasters. 

This armament, which amounted to little more than one 
naif of the Spanish fleet, contained sixteen thousand seamen. 
The chief command was assumed by Lord Howard of Effing- 
nam, Admiral of England, a man of resolution and intrepid- 
ity ; under whom served Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. 
The anxious eyes of the Protestants of Europe watched the 
result of this enterprise as decisive of their fate ; while every 
district in England emulated each other in pouring forth its 
population to take their stand on the coast and repel the 
insulting invaders. The Catholics, forgetting all party feel- 
ing, united in common cause with the Protestants. About 
fifty thousand men, under Lord Hunsdon, guarded the queen's 
person. The Thames at Tilbury, was protected by upward 
of twenty thousand troops, commanded by the Earl of Lei- 
cester. Sir Walter Raleigh was stationed at Portland Castle 
in Dorsetshire. A division of the fleet also lay off Dunkirk, 
to intercept the Spaniards in the narrow seas. 

Under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the 
Armada set sail for England, but was shortly shattered and 
dispersed by a storm. This gave rise to a report, that the 
Armada was so much injured, that the expeditioa was for the 
present abandoned : and the English ships had withdrawn 
into the ports, when intelligence accidentally arrived that the 
Spanish fleet was bearing full down on the coast. Effing- 
ham had scarcely time to get out of the port of Plymouth, 
when he beheld the Spaniards entering the channel in the 
form of a crescent, which extended its two extremities to the 
distance of seven miles. The English admiral, aware of his 



166 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

inability to cope with it in an engagement, determined to 
destroy it by fire-ships. The day after the Spaniards had 
cast anchor, Effingham made ready eight of his worst vessels, 
covered them with fire, pitch, and rosin, and filling them 
with combustible matter, sent them in flames among the Span- 
ish fleet, in the dead of the night. A loud cry of horror burst 
from the Spaniards, and they instantly cut their cables to 
stand out to sea ; in their consternation and confusion they 
inflicted severe injury on one another ; and to augment their 
distress, a fierce gale sprung up which scattered the boasted 
Armada along the coast from Ostend to Calais. The ships 
which escaped the fury of the elements were successfully at- 
tacked by Drake. The remains of the fleet made a circuit 
round Britain and Ireland, in which they suffered farther 
destruction from the weather, and they ultimately returned 
home covered with shame and dishonor. Of this immense 
force but fifty-three vessels arrived in Spain ; about one half 
the men perished, nor was there a family of note, in Spain, 
which had not occasion to mourn the loss of some relative in 
this unfortunate expedition. 

The English navy, emboldened by its triumph, made sev- 
eral successful descents upon the Spanish coast, for the pur- 
pose of harrassing the enemy. These expeditions were con- 
ducted by the most able commanders, among whom are some 
of the highest names in the history of maritime enterprise and 
discovery, such as those of Raleigh, Drake, Cavendish, Haw- 
kins, and Howard. From this period England assumed the 
empire of the seas, which yet acknowledge her sway. 

The unsettled and unsatisfactory state of Ireland, where the 
English authority was little more than nominal, rendered it 
dangerous to the quiet of England ; and Elizabeth, taking 
advantage of the rebellion under the conduct of the Earl of 
Tyrone, determined to complete the subjugation of that island. 
The young Earl of Essex, who had succeeded, since the death 
of the Earl of Leicester, to the queen's favor, obtained the 
vice-royalty of Ireland, and the command of the army destined 



ELIZABETH. 



167 



for its reduction. The ill-success of this nobleman disgusted 
Elizabeth, and his insolence caused her to suspect him of 
harboring dangerous designs. Suddenly, and without per- 
mission, he returned to England to make his peace at court. 
But Lord Mountjoy, who was the Deputy Governor, by his 
able and indefatigable exertions, defeated the rebels at every 
quarter, and compelled them to make an absolute submission 
of their lives and property to their sovereign's mercy. 

Essex, who wished to govern Elizabeth by means of her 
affection for him, was brought to trial before the privy-council, 
for his conduct in the management of the Irish affairs, and 
condemned to banishment from court, and to a secluded resi- 
dence in his own house. He endeavored to recover his for- 
mer ascendency over the queen's mind by assuming a tone of 
humility and regret. This submission was very agreeable to 
her, but the enemies of Essex insinuated that his lofty spirit 
was far from being subdued ; and his rigorous treatment im- 
pressed him with a belief that the queen was inexorable, and 
drove him to the most fatal extremities. He threw off all 
appearances of respect, and indulged in indecent reflections 
on the queen's advanced age and decayed beauty. 

Essex had long been a great favorite with the populace, 
and relied on their assistance in the schemes he now formed. 
He entered into a correspondence with the King of Scotland, 
relative to his succession, and formed the desperate idea of 
seizing the queen's person, removing his enemies from office, 
and changing the government of the kingdom. He soon found 
that these wild plans had not entirely escaped the vigilance 
of Elizabeth, and he determined to make one effort more be- 
fore they should be completely discovered. He endeavored to 
excite the city of London in his favor, and to overturn the 
existing administration ; in this mad project he completely 
failed, and was compelled to surrender at discretion. He 
was brought to immediate trial, and having been convicted of 
treason, and condemned to suffer the usual punishment of 
traitors, Elizabeth, in a moment of irritation, signed the war- 



168 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

rant for Essex's execution ; but her affection reviving, she 
countermanded the order, again commanded it to proceed, 
and again yielded to a turn of tenderness in his favor. But, 
irritated at last, chiefly by his supposed obstinacy in making 
no application to her for mercy, she consented to his death. 
When in prison, religion subdued the pride of his heart ; and 
he died, acknowledging the justice of his sentence, and the 
enormity of his offense. 

SECTION V. 

The death of Essex proved a severe blow to Elizabeth ; the 
vigor of her mind and her happiness seemed to expire with 
her favorite : she ceased to take her former interest in public 
affairs, and her health gradually declined. The courtiers, 
seeing her end approach, neglected her, and sought to secure 
the favor of the king of Scotland, her presumptive heir. She 
now also discovered that Essex had actually thrown himself 
on her clemency, and that his enemies had found means to 
conceal his application. From the moment she made this 
discovery she resigned herself to the deepest despondency, 
refused all sustenance and consolation, rejected advice from 
her physicians, and fell into a settled melancholy. In this 
situation she continued for ten days, lying on cushions on the 
floor ; and as death was visibly approaching, the council 
sent the Lord Admiral and Secretary Cecil to know her will 
respecting the succession. She replied to them, " My seat 
has been the seat of kings, and I will have no base person to 
succeed me ; and who should succeed me but a king ?" Cecil 
asked her what she meant? Elizabeth faintly answered, " I 
will be succeeded by a king ; and who should that be but 
our cousin of Scotland?" and requested them to trouble her 
no more. The next day the queen was speechless, and calmly 
breathed her last, about two o'clock in the morning of the 
25th of March, 1603. 






ELIZABETH. 169 

The character given of this illustrious woman by her con- 
temporaries, in whose admiration flattery might have been 
supposed to have had a share time has only the more strongly 
ratified. She possessed the highest talents for government; 
vigorous in action, steady in purpose, she overcame foreign 
enemies the most powerful, the most subtle, and the least 
scrupulous, in Europe. 

" Hail, virgin queen-, o'er many an envious bar 
Triumphant — snatched from many a treacherous wile ! 
All hail, sage lady ! whom a grateful isle 
Hath blest." 

Wordsworth. 



Until the reign of Elizabeth, English commerce and navi- 
gation can be represented as only in their infancy ; at the close 
of that period they appear in vigorous youth, already masters 
on the ocean, extending their enterprise to every known shore, 
and, buoyant with hope and success, exploring and adding 
to their dominions lands hitherto unknown. National indus- 
try was, in general, progressive. Agriculture was so much 
improved, that one acre was now commonly made to produce 
as much as two had formerly done. Various products of the 
farm and garden were introduced into England within the 
sixteenth century, as the hop, clover, salads, cabbage, the 
pale gooseberry, and also, according to some, the apricot and 
muskmellon from the Netherlands, currants from Zante, the 
cherry and several varieties of plums from Italy. The dam- 
ask and musk rose, and many other ornaments of the garden 
were first cultivated in England, within the same period. 
Among the national manufactures and handicrafts, that of 
woolen cloth preserved its old pre-eminence. The raw mate- 
rial was produced within the realm, and though the great de- 
mand was for the home consumption, several descriptions 
were also manufactured for the foreign market, and the whole 
process was now completed within the country. The spirit 
of the age was opposed to machinery. About 1589, William 
Lee invented the stocking frame; but not receiving encour 



1*70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

agement at home, he carried the improvement to France. 
Encouragement was given to the linen manufacture; but it 
was yet in an incipient state. Extensive iron-works were 
established in Kent, Sussex, and Surrey; and in 1565, a 
company was incorporated for drawing iron wire by ma- 
chinery. 

At the accession of Elizabeth learning was sinking into 
another decline. The halls of Cambridge were almost de- 
serted, and Latimer, in a sermon preached about 1550, ex- 
presses his belief that there were then ten thousand fewer 
students in the kingdom than there had been twenty years 
before. Some improvement was made under Elizabeth ; but 
while learning was fashionable among the nobility of both 
sexes, the generality of the lower, and many even of the mid- 
dle classes, remained to the end of that period almost wholly 
uneducated. The new and native vein of poetry, which had 
been opened by Surrey and Wyatt, was worked still farther 
by Sidney, Sackville, Raleigh, and most of all by Spenser. 
The native English drama, beginning with the interludes of 
Haywood, cultivated by Greene, Marlowe and others, was 
carried to its highest excellence by the genius of Shakspeare. 
Prose did not attain an equal rank with poetry, although it 
was enriched by the works of Ascham, Puttenham and Hooker, 
as well as those of Sidney and others. 

The fine arts, with the exception of music, did not equally 
prosper. The purity of Gothic architecture came to an end 
with the reign of Henry VII, after which the false taste of the 
Tudor style prevailed until the early part of the seventeenth 
century, when the classical was happily introduced by Inigo 
Jones. 

Although the number of paupers continued to increase, and 
troops of thieves and robbers to harrass the country — evils 
which legislation strove in vain to remove ; yet the condition 
of the people, during this whole reign, was that of progressive 
improvement, more encouraging than the highest prosperity, 
if stationary. 



JAMES I. lTl 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

JAMES I. 

Born 1566 — Began to reign 1603— Died 1625— Reigned 22 years. 

His unquestionable claim to the throne, as well as his pro- 
fession of the established religion, rendered the son of Mary, 
James VI of Scotland, a welcome successor to Elizabeth. 
James was deeply imbued with notions of the royal prerog- 
ative, and a firm believer in the divine right of kings. The 
conduct of the Scotch puritans toward James, induced him 
to believe that their English brethren were likewise opposed 
to regal government ; this opinion was of much trouble, both 
to the monarch and the puritans. 

The popularity of James did not continue long. Afraid 
of the people, he endeavored to suppress any marked show 
of loyalty. Ignorant of the jealous spirit of his English 
peers, he heaped honors on unpopular families, and intro- 
duced the Scotch nobles into the peerage of England. A 
conspiracy to elevate the Lady Arabella Stuart, a descendant 
from Henry VII, to the throne, xhough obscurely traced, was 
detected in the first year of his reign. The Lords Cobham 
and Gray de Walden, and Sir Walter Raleigh, connected 
with it, were tried and condemned, and the two former par- 
doned, after they had laid their heads on the block ; Raleigh 
was reprieved, but detained for several years a prisoner in 
the Tower. 

A love of peace was one of the best traits in James' char- 
acter, and shortly after his accession he concluded peace with 
Spain ; and fearing no troubles at home, and apprehensive of 
no enemies abroad, he hoped to enjoy an undisturbed reign. 
In this apparently secure state of things, a dreadful blow 
against the government and religion of the country was med- 
itated. The Catholics, who expected favor and protection 



1"72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

from James, being exasperated, framed a scheme of revenge, 
known as the Gunpowder Plot. 

Richard Catesby, a man of considerable talents, and of 
good family, was the contriver of this conspiracy. Consult- 
ing with Percy, a descendant of the house of Northumberland, 
by what methods they might retrieve their declining cause, 
the latter proposed to assassinate the king: Catesby pointed 
out the inadequacy of this plan to the greatness of their de- 
signs — the reestablishment of Catholicism. " To serve any 
good purpose," said he, " we must destroy, at one blow, the 
king, the royal family, the lords, and commons, and bury all 
our enemies in one common ruin." To effect this purpose, 
he proposed to blow up the parliament house with gunpowder, 
at the very moment the king and the estates of the realm 
were assembled. 

The scheme was disclosed to several zealous Catholics, 
who eagerly embraced it. The conspirators hired a house, in 
Percy's name, adjoining that in which the Parliament met. 
Toward the end of the year 1604, they began to pierce through 
the walls, in order to reach the house where the Legislature 
was to assemble. As they approached the other side of the 
wall they were startled by a noise ; and on inquiry found it 
to proceed from a vault below the House of Lords, which was 
used as a magazine, and ascertained that it would be let to 
the highest bidder. The vault was instantly hired by Percy, 
and thirty-six barrels of gunpowder lodged in it. The whole 
being covered up with faggots and billets, the doors were 
boldly thrown open for general admittance. 

Successful thus far in their design, it remained now to be 
considered, when the fatal blow could be given with the great- 
est effect. The king, queen, and Prince Henry, were expected 
to be present at the opening of Parliament. Percy undertook 
to secure Prince Charles, while the Princess Elizabeth was 
to be surprised by the conspirators, who were to assemble on 
pretense of a hunting match, at Lord Harrington's seat, in 
Warwickshire, where she then resided. 



JAMES I. 173 

The dreadful day, so long wished for, at last approached. 
The fatal secret, though communicated to more than twenty 
individuals, had been religiously observed for upward of 
eighteen months, and nothing seemed likely to prevent the 
success of their plan, when suddenly the secret, so enveloped 
in mystery, was brought to light in a wonderful manner. 

Ten days before the meeting of Parliament, Lord Montea- 
gle's son, a Catholic, heir to Lord Morley, was surprised by 
receiving a letter, which had been given to his servant by an 
unknown person. The letter advised him to stay away from 
this Parliament ; " For God and man have concurred to pun- 
ish the wickedness of this time. Think not slightly of this 
advertisement, but withdraw yourself into the country, where 
you may expect the event in safety; for though there be no 
appearance of any stir, they shall receive a terrible blow in 
this Parliament, and shall not see who hurt them. This 
counsel is not to be contemned, because it may do you good, 
and can do you no harm. For the danger is passed as soon 
as you have burnt this letter." 

Though Lord Monteagle imagined this letter to be only a 
ridiculous artifice to alarm him, yet, happily, he carried it to 
Lord Salisbury, secretary of state. Salisbury agreed in opin- 
ion with Lord Monteagle, but laid it before the king. His 
majesty looked into the affair more deeply than his ministers. 
From the " quick and nervous style of the letter," James in- 
stantly supposed that some design had been formed for blow- 
ing up the Parliament House with gunpowder, and it was 
considered prudent to search the vaults underneath. 

The search was purposely delayed by the lord chamber- 
lain, till the day before the meeting of parliament, on the 5th 
of November, 1605. This officer, on looking through the 
vaults, remarked the great piles of wood and faggots, and, 
casting his eyes aside, observed a suspicious looking man in 
the corner, and on inquiry was informed that he was Percy's 
servant ; this person was Guido, or Guy Fawkes. It was 
resolved to make a further search into the fuel at midnight, 



174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

when Sir Thomas Knevet, a magistrate, was sent with propel 
attendants, and siezed Fawkes preparing for the terrible en- 
terprise, at the door of the vault : he was wrapped up in a 
cloak, and carried a dark lantern in his hand, and in his 
pockets matches and other combustibles were found ; he had 
just returned from laying the train. Knevet immediately 
proceeded to overturn the faggots, and thus discovered the 
gunpowder. Fawkes now saw no refuge except in boldness 
and audacity, and declared with an oath, " that if he had 
been found within the house he would have blown up him- 
self and them together." He expressed great regret at the 
failure of the scheme, saying that " the devil and not God 
had betrayed his good design." When examined before 
the king and council, he exhibited the same courage, and an- 
swered all questions in a tone of sarcasm* and defiance. The 
Tower and the rack, however, subdued this bold spirit ; his 
resolution failed him, and he disclosed the whole conspiracy. 
On learning that the plot was discovered, Catesby and the 
other conspirators hastened into Warwickshire, where Sir 
Everard Digby was in arms to seize the Princess Elizabeth. 
The sheriff, however, summoned the county to arms, and 
attacked them. Catesby and Percy, fighting back to back, 
were killed by the same shot. The conspirators who survived 
were captured and tried, and with Fawkes, suffered the pen- 
alty due to their crime. 

SECTION II. 

James now turned his attention to a union of the two king- 
doms of Scotland and England, and attempted to civilize the 
barbarous inhabitants of Ireland, and thus render their sub- 
jection desirable and useful to the sister island. The obsti- 
nacy of the House of Commons prevented the union, and his 

* A Scotch nobleman asked Fawkes for what end he had collected so many- 
barrels of gunpowder ? " To blow the Scotch beggars back to their native 
mountains," was the reply. 



JAMES 1. 175 

attempts in Ireland were more honorable in design than sue 
cessful in execution. The unnecessary profusion of James, 
and the expenses of maintaining his authority in Ireland, 
soon brought him into pecuniary difficulties, and obliged him 
to apply for money to Parliament. They in return demanded 
redress of national grievances, particularly the suppression 
of the High Commission Court, which had begun to act with 
severity against the Puritans. Recriminations ensued, which 
ended in the dissolution of Parliament. 

In 1613, James found it necessary, for the sake of relieving 
his wants, to summon another Parliament. His affections 
had already been fixed on a worthless favorite, Robert Carr, 
(whose life was one continued scene of crimes), whom he 
had raised through the several gradations of rank to the earl- 
dom of Somerset. The sums which he spent on this minion, 
and the countenance which he extended toward him after the 
horrible tragedy of Sir Thomas Overbury's murder, aggrava- 
ted the distresses of the exchequer, and degraded the monarch 
in the eyes of his people. The king's second application to 
the House of Commons for money was worse received than 
the former ; that assembly proceeded with the redress of griev- 
ances, and, for their disobedience to the royal commands, 
were punished by a hasty dissolution, and five of the most 
refractory members committed to the Tower. This, in the 
quaint language of the time, was called " the Addle Parlia- 
ment." 

The imprudences and crimes of Somerset at length disgusted 
even his attached master, who only required a substitute to 
get rid of him. This James easily founrl in George Villiers, a 
youth of good and ancient family, handsome person, and fash- 
ionable manners, whom Somerset's enemies placed in his 
way. Villiers soon caught the king's affections, became his 
prime favorite, and in the course of a few years was created 
Viscount Villiers, Earl, Marquis, and Duke of Buckingham — 
had innumerable lucrative appointments and large estates 
oestowed on him ; while Somerset was driven from the royal 



1^6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

presence, and spent the remainder of his days in that contempt 
and despair his vices justly merited. 

The unfortunate Sir Walter Raleigh, after passing twelve 
years in the Tower, now undertook, by the king's permission, 
a voyage to America, for the purpose of working a gold mine, 
and bringing home immense treasures. Failing in finding 
the mine, he attacked a Spanish settlement on the river Oro- 
noco. The Spanish ambassador, Gondemar, made serious 
complaints of this conduct; and James, on Raleigh's return, 
anxious to show attachment to Spain, resolved on his execu- 
tion, for his share in the conspiracy of which fifteen years 
before he had been convicted. Raleigh was accordingly 
beheaded on the 29th of October, 1618. The execution of 
Raleigh is one of the most unjustifiable acts of James's reign. 
He was one of the most extraordinary men of an age which 
produced many great men. He united in his own person, 
undaunted courage and admirable abilities, with the accom- 
plishments of a gentleman and the learning of a scholar. 

James had wielded the scepter for sixteen years in peace, 
when he was reluctantly dragged into a war by the ambition 
of a member of his family, and the enthusiasm of his people. 
His daughter, the princess Elizabeth, had been married in 
the year 1613, to Frederick, the Elector Palatine, a man of 
abilities and ambition. In the year 1619,the states of Bohemia 
(having taken arms in defense of the Protestant religion, and 
persevered in the contest, notwithstanding the endeavors of 
the Emperor of Germany to crush them) made an offer of their 
crown to the Elector Palatine, which he accepted, declaring 
that he saw the finger of God in his election, and that he 
dared not oppose the will of the Almighty. Frederick has- 
tened, with his family, to Prague, and was crowned king. 
James refused every application from his son-in-law in favor 
of his pretensions to the crown of Bohemia, but granted the 
use of an army for the protection of his patrimonial posses- 
sions. The affairs of the new king soon came to a crisis ; he 
was defeated in the decisive battle of Prague, and obliged to 



JAMES I. 17T 

take refuge in Holland. The English, commanded by Sir 
Horace Vere, joined the army of " the Protestant Union," 
the German allies of the Palatine, but were unable to pre- 
serve that principality from the victorious arms of the Impe- 
rial troops, led by the celebrated Spinola. Frederick was 
obliged to live with his numerous family in Holland, and the 
new conquests of the Catholics throughout Germany were 
attended with violent persecutions against the Protestants. 

The cause of the pacific policy of James toward Spain, 
which in the late reign had been the most formidable enemy 
of English power, and which had supported the emperor in 
his conquest of the palatinate, was now seen in his wish to 
marry his son, Prince Charles (Prince Henry having lately 
died) to the Infanta of Spain. The court of Spain, for sev- 
eral years lavish in their promises, put off the marriage, and 
assigned as a reason for the delay, that they had not been able 
to remove the great obstacle of a difference in religion by a 
dispensation from the Pope. 

This delay was highly displeasing to the king, who looked 
with anxious eyes on the immense dowry of the Infanta, and 
who, in the event of the marriage, hoped for the mediation 
of Spain to procure redress for his son-in-law. Spain, how- 
ever, at last seemed to be desirous of the projected alliance, 
as Philip agreed to bestow on his sister a fortune of six hun- 
dred thousand crowns; and James was exulting in the antic- 
ipated advantages, when they were blasted by the interference 
of his worthless favorite, Buckingham, who, envying Lord 
Bristol the reputation he had acquired by managing the 
Spanish negotiation, persuaded Prince Charles to go in per- 
son to Spain, throw himself at the feet of the Spanish prin- 
cess, and, in the true spirit of romance, claim her as his bride. 
The prince and the Duke (or " baby Charles," and " dog 
Steenie," as the king playfully called his son and his favor- 
ite), set out as a knight-errant and squire, were received at 
Madrid with great ceremony, and the match appeared on the 
point of consummation, when the prince refused to complete 



1*78 HISTORV OF ENGLAND. 

it. In his journey to Spain through France, Charles saw and 
fell in love with the princess Henrietta, then in the bloom of 
youth and beauty, whom he afterward married. 

SECTION III. 

A Spanish connection had always been distasteful to the 
House of Commons, who had in 1621, addressed James 
against it, and recommended him to take arms in defense of 
his son-in-law and the Protestant cause; he, however, rebuked 
them for presuming to address him on the subject. When 
the Commons replied to this rebuke, he gravely informed 
them that their understandings were unable to comprehend 
his sagacious policy ; asserted that the rights of Parliament 
were not hereditary or inherent, but held by the sufferance 
of their monarchs ; and forbade them to meddle with anything 
that regarded his government, or deep matters of state.* 
Upon this, the Commons framed the memorable document 
of English freedom, in which they recorded the right of Par- 
liament to advise the king in all matters of government, to 
redress public grievances, and claimed entire freedom of 
speech in their debates. The king replied, that their remon- 
strance was more like a declaration of war than the address 
of dutiful subjects, tore the declaration out of the journals of 
the house, and soon after dissolved Parliament. Sir Edward 
Coke, Sir Robert Philips, Selden, Pym, and Mallory, the 
leading members of the house, were imprisoned ; and some 
others were sent to Ireland, nominally to execute the king's 
commands there, but really to get rid of them. 

After the breaking off the marriage with the Infanta of 
Spain, James gave way to the advice of Parliament, and de- 
clared war against that country. This declaration was hailed 
with delight by the nation and Protestant Europe, who looked 
for vengeance on the Catholics for their persecution of the 

*It was on this occasion that James reminded the Commons of the proverb, 
that " The cobbler should stick to his last." 



JAMES I. 179 

reformed faith. The Commons, having readily voted supplies, 
six thousand men, under the command of Lords Oxford, 
Southampton, Essex, and Willoughby, were sent over to 
Holland, to assist Prince Maurice (who at this time governed 
the United Provinces of the Netherlands) in his designs 
against the Catholic alliance. The recovery of the Palati- 
nate — a state in the heart of hostile Germany, and cut off 
from all communication with England — was also determined 
on ; and for this purpose twelve thousand men were levied, 
and placed under the command of Count Mansfield, an able 
general. These forces were designed to pass through France 
into Germany, the French having promised as well an addi- 
tion of strength, as a free passage. The French, however 
on their arrival at Calais, delayed, although they did not 
directly deny, their passage ; and, after a tedious stay in ex- 
pectation of being allowed to land, they were obliged to set 
sail for Zealand, where proper measures had not been taken 
for their disembarkation. Long confinement to their narrow 
vessels, and the want of necessaries, produced a pestilence 
among the troops, which raged so severely, that when orders 
for landing arrived, scarcely a third part were able to go on 
shore, and of these, numbers afterward died or deserted ; 
and thus ended this ill-concerted and fruitless expedition. 

Before James could hear of the misfortunes of Count Mans- 
field's forces, or the marriage of his son, about to be celebra- 
ted at the French court, he was seized with a tertian ague, which 
from his obstinacy in refusing medicine, proved fatal to him. 
On the eleventh day of his illness he received the sacrament 
with a serenity of mind, and fervor of devotion, which drew 
tears from the eyes of all present ; and three days afterward 
he expired, March 27th, 1625, in the fifty-ninth year of his 
age. Of his seven children, three sons and four daughters, 
two only survived him — Charles, his successor, and Elizabeth, 
queen of Bohemia. 

In drawing the character of James, perhaps both friends 
and enemies have exceeded the limits of impartiality. His 



180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

admirers delighted to bestow on him the title of " the British 
Solomon," while his opponents gave him the appellation of 
" the wisest fool in Europe." His chief defect as a sovereign 
was the want of spirit and resolution ; his greatest virtue, a love 
of peace. That he entertained wrong ideas of the English 
Constitution was the effect of ignorance and education : his 
designs against the liberties of his subjects were easily opposed, 
because they were invariably known ; his pretensions to arbi- 
trary power were the constant subject of his private conversa- 
tion, and a never-failing theme for his addresses to the Legis- 
lature. He openly professed skill in dissimulation, and yet 
was ever committing some imprudent act ; his discourse teemed 
with maxims of political wisdom, and his conduct generally 
bore the impress of folly. In a luxurious court, he was him- 
self moderate and pious ; notwithstanding all his real learn- 
ing, his pedantry was ridiculous, and his application of it 
often contemptible. To his measures, and his treatment of 
parliament in particular, must be attributed the origin of the 
disasters of the succeeding reign. In person, James was 
almost deformed ; his air was vulgar, and his manners un- 
polished. The colonization of North America is one of the 
most memorable circumstances in the history of James. The 
colonists who settled there soon raised these distant possess- 
ions into importance, acquired wealth by the culture of 
tobacco, and extended the English dominion in the New 
World. 



Some of the greatest men, who grew up under the patron- 
age of Elizabeth, lived to adorn the reign of her successor, 
which was thus honored by the maturity of Shakspeare, 
Beaumont and Fletcher, Johnson, Bacon and Raleigh, as well 
as by the youth of Selden, Hobbes and others of little less ce- 
lebrity. 



CHARLES I. 181 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

CHARLES I. 
Bom 1600— Began to reign 1625— Died 1 649 — Reigned 24 years. 

Charles, notwithstanding the discontent of the nation at the 
time of his father's death, ascended the throne with the uni- 
versal satisfaction of the people, but was soon encompassed 
with difficulties more formidable than those which beset James. 
Charles inherited his father's notions of the royal prerogative. 
The Parliament voted such limited supplies for the prosecution 
of the war for the recovery of the Palatinate, (into which 
James was forced by public opinion, and from which Charles 
could not recede with honor) that it could not be carried on 
with any prospect of success. The chief reason for this ex- 
cessive parsimony was the hatred entertained by the people 
toward Buckingham. The House of Commons, although 
they refused adequate means of supporting their own measure, 
clamored loudly against Popery and the toleration of 
the Catholics, enacted laws for the stricter observance of 
Sunday, and addressed the king in favor of the non-conform- 
ing clergy. 

Charles, unable to procure supplies from his Parliament, 
with great difficulty borrowed money, by the exercise of some 
arbitrary and unconstitutional practices, which royalty had 
adopted occasionally during the last six reigns ; by which 
means he equipped a fleet destined against Spain. But the 
fleet thus fitted out performed nothing worthy of notice ; and 
the ill-success of an enterprise against Cadiz increased the 
public discontent. 

Obliged once more to have recourse to the Legislature 
Charles determined to diminish the number of popular leaders 



182 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

in the lower house, by appointing the most distinguished of 
them (Sir Edward Coke, Sir Robert Philips, Sir Thomas 
Wentworth, and Sir Guy Palmer,) sheriffs ; a situation sup- 
posed to be incompatible with the duties of a representative. 
The artifice, however, was too gross to escape detection, and 
it served only to hasten measures disagreeable to the king. 
Charles asked for money; the Commons demanded a redress 
of grievances : in-order, however, to prevent a speedy disso- 
lution, and, as their own war could not be carried on without 
funds, they granted two subsidies. They impeached Bucking- 
ham, the favorite : the king ordered the chief managers of the 
impeachment, Sir John Eliot and Sir Dudley Digges, to be 
committed to the Tower. The Commons, on this, refused to 
proceed with any business until these members were released, 
which demand was complied with. They denied the right of 
the king to levy taxes without their consent ; and were about 
to petition for the removal of the obnoxious minister, when 
the king abruptly dissolved Parliament on the 15th of June, 
1626. The king and his Commons, at their separation, pub- 
lished each an appeal to the nation. 

Charles followed up his address to the people by a demand 
on their purses. Money was raised by a forced loan, which 
was apportioned among the people according to the rate at 
which they had been respectively assessed to the last subsidy. 
It was on this occasion that John Hampden made his first 
stand for the fundamental principle of the constitution. He 
positively refused to comply ; and, being required to give his 
reasons, answered, " that he could be content to lend as well 
as others, but feared to draw on himself that curse in Magna 
Charta, which should be read twice a year against those who 
infringed it." For this noble answer he was committed to 
close confinement, by the privy council. 

War, by Buckingham's advice, was declared against France. 
His motives would appear incredible, if the profligacy of his 
character were not known. At the time when Charles married, 
by proxy, Henrietta of France, Buckingham had appeared at 



CHARLES I. 183 

Paris to grace the festivity, and by his showy accomplishments 
had attracted the notice of the queen of France, Anne of 
Austria. Having conducted Henrietta to' England, he re 
turned to that city, and boldly intruded into the royal cham 
ber. Anne listened to the protestations of his attachment 
and indignantly ordered him to depart. Buckingham, how 
ever, continued to cherish this extravagant passion, and pre 
pared to visit Paris again as ambassador ; when Richelieu 
the French minister, (himself a disappointed lover of the 
queen) on the part of his master, declined the honor of his 
intended visit. Buckingham, in a transport of rage, swore 
he would see Anne in spite of all the power of France, and 
endeavored to provoke the government of that country to 
declare war. Failing in this, he persuaded Charles to assist 
the French Huguenots. The war thus foolishly undertaken, 
was still more foolishly conducted. Buckingham set sail 
with a powerful armament, to relieve the Huguenots of Ro- 
chelle. Uninformed of his designs, they shut their gates 
against him. Instead of attacking the rich and defenseless 
Tsle of Oleron, he bent his course to the Isle of Rhe, and, 
after allowing it to be well provisioned, attempted to reduce 
it, and disgracefully failed. 

The government in the mean time continued their oppres- 
sions at home. Soldiers were billeted on the people, and 
crimes of which ordinary justice should have taken cogni- 
zance were punished by martial law. Nearly eighty gentle- 
men were imprisoned for refusing to contribute to the forced 
loan. Those of the lower people who showed any signs of 
insubordination, were pressed into the fleet, or compelled to 
serve in the army. Money, however, came in so slowly, 
that the king was compelled to summon another Parliament. 
In the hope of conciliating his subjects, he set at liberty the 
persons who had been imprisoned for refusing to comply with 
his unlawful commands. 

The Parliament met early in 1628. The Commons fore- 
saw that upon the first disagreement with Charles they would 



184 HISTORY Or ENGLAND. 

be dismissed. The necessity for redress of grievances having 
been admitted by the whole house, five subsidies were voted 
to the king. This supply, although voted, was not immedi- 
ately passed into a law ; the Commons insisted, in the inter- 
val, on Charles's assent to that celebrated enactment, the 
second great charter of the liberties of England, known as the 
Petition of Rights, which, after many delays and much 
equivocation, he granted. By agreeing to this act, the king 
bound himself to raise no taxes without the consent of Par- 
liament, to imprison no man except by legal process, to billet 
no more soldiers on the people, and to leave the cognizance 
of offenses to the ordinary tribunals. 

Immediately after the king received supplies, he continued, 
in direct violation of the Petition of Rights, to raise tonnage 
and poundage, without the consent of Parliament, and the 
troops were again billeted on the people. 

The indignation of the Commons when they next met (Jan- 
uary 1629) exceeded all bounds. They took into their seri- 
ous consideration the measures of the government concerning 
tonnage and poundage. They summoned the officers of the 
customs to their bar, to give an account of the authority by 
which they seized the goods of those who refused to pay the 
tonnage ; interrogated the barons of the exchequer as to the 
decrees they had pronounced on that point ; and committed 
to the Tower one of the sheriffs of London, for his activity 
in supporting the officers of the customs. Sir John Eliot pro- 
posed a resolution condemning the unconstitutional imposi- 
tion. The speaker refused to put the question, saying, that 
the king had commanded him to adjourn the house, and rose 
to depart. This announcement produced the most violent 
burst of feeling ever witnessed in Parliament. Eliot dashed 
the paper which contained his resolution on the floor of the 
House ; Valentine and Hollis held the speaker down in his 
seat by force, and read the motion amid the loudest shouts. 
The door was locked and the key placed on the table. Pa- 
pists and Arminians were declared capital enemies to the 



CHARLES I. 185 

commonwealth, as also were those who levied or paid tonnage 
or poundage. During this extraordinary proceeding the king 
came to the House of Lords, and sent the usher of the black 
rod, with a message to the Commons. He knocked for 
admittance in vain. The king at last commanded the captain 
of the guard to break open the door, but at that very moment 
the Commons adjourned. On the day appointed for its next 
meeting, Parliament was dissolved, and several of the most 
eminent of its members, including Eliot, Hollis, Valentine, 
and Seldon, were imprisoned. 

SECTION II. 

During the disputes of this Parliament the Duke of Bucking- 
ham was assassinated, and the Commons thus freed from their 
enemy. While superintending, at Portsmouth, the prepara- 
tions for another expedition in support of the French Hugue- 
nots, Buckingham was murdered by Felton, who had formerly 
served under him as lieutenant. The king felt this misfortune 
most acutely, and displayed the sincerity of his attachment by 
protecting his family. Anxious to discover if Felton had any 
accomplices, he ordered him to be put to the torture, but the 
judges declared that, although that practice had been common, 
the law had never sanctioned it. 

Charles now determined to govern without Parliaments. 
He concluded a peace with Spain and France, having prom- 
ised to observe a neutrality with regard to the affairs of the 
continent. To strengthen his administration, he attached 
several leaders of the popul-ar party to the court interest, the 
most important of whom was Sir Thomas Wentworth, after- 
ward created Earl of Strafford, subsequently Lord President 
of the North, and Lord Deputy of Ireland ; a man of valor 
and capacity, but charged by his enemies with licentiousness 
and cruelty. While Charles and Strafford managed the tem- 
poral affairs of the kingdom, the policy of the Church was 
directed by Archbishop Laud, who devoted the best energies 



186 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

of his powerful mind to secure the stability of the reformed 
faith. Among the humbler ministers of Charles who had de- 
serted the ranks of the patriots, were Sir Dudley Digges, Nov, 
and Littleton. 

The popular party was divided into two factions, of which 
the Puritans were the most powerful. Aus-tere, haughty, and 
intolerant, they sought to reform both Church and State ac- 
cording to their peculiar notions of scriptural doctrines and 
practice. The other class, which may be called the country, 
or constitutional party, professed merely to seek the reforma- 
tion of abuses in the prerogative, and the preservation of the 
liberties of the people. The opposition affected to believe 
that the revival of Popery was aimed at, because Laud stren- 
uously endeavored to have the ceremonies of the Church 
strictly observed, and this, to a certain extent, received con- 
firmation from the sale of compositions to the Catholics. 

Under the administration of Strafford, the Petition of Rights 
was frequently set at defiance. All who, by acts or words, 
opposed the government, were proceeded against in the star- 
chamber, which encroached on the jurisdiction of the other 
courts, without having any fixed principles of its own. Sir 
David Foulis was fined £5,000 for dissuading a friend from 
compounding for knighthood. Prynne, a barrister, was con- 
demned to be pilloried, to lose his ears, to pay a fine of £5,000, 
and to be imprisoned for life, for publishing a book* against 
the stage, hunting, and festivals, which was thought to reflect 
on the queen, and which animadverted on the proceedings of 
Laud. 

Unable to procure money by the means hitherto pursued, 
Charles adopted a scheme of taxation, not altogether unknown 
in England, which completely alienated the affections of the 
people. He issued writs to levy ship money. John Hampden 
had been rated at twenty shillings, as ship money for an 
estate which he possessed in Buckinghamshire, which was 
assessed as a ship of four hundred and twenty tons ; Hamp- 

• " Histrio-mastrix, or the Player's Scourge." 



CHARLES I. 187 

den, considering the impost illegal, refused to pay it, and 
resolved to embrace the opportunity thus offered, and bring 
the controversy between Charles and his subjects before the 
judges of the land. The case was argued during twelve days, 
before all the judges; and although it has never been doubted 
that the law was clearly in favor of Hampden, yet such was 
the subserviency of the bench, that the judges, four only 
excepted, gave sentence in favor of the crown. " This decis- 
ion," says Clarendon, " proved of more advantage and credit 
to the gentleman condemned than to the king's service," its 
only effect being to make the public indignation stronger. 

The supremacy of the court was now at its height ; many of 
the obnoxious persons emigrated to a settlement, formed by 
some persecuted Puritans in the wilderness of Connecticut. 
Hampden himself, with his kinsman, Oliver Cromwell, was 
on the point of emigrating, and was actually on board a ves- 
sel bound for North America, when the ship was prohibited 
from sailing by an order of council. 

During the discontents produced by these proceedings, 
Charles attempted to change the ecclesiastical constitution of 
Scotland, and to introduce episcopacy. This attempt pro- 
duced at first discontents, and at length open rebellion. A 
provisional government was established at Edinburgh, and its 
proclamations obeyed throughout the kingdom. This gov- 
ernment raised an army, appointed a leader, and summoned 
a general assembly of the kirk. Tne famous instrument called 
the Covenant, was put forth, and was eagerly subscribed to 
by the people. Charles raised an army to reduce the cove- 
nanters to submission, and then, after a feeble campaign, 
disbanded his forces, and concluded a treaty with them. The 
terms of this pacification were not observed, and Charles re- 
solved on forcing the insurgents into absolute submission. 
His treasury, however, was exhausted, his revenues anticipa- 
ted ; and he was afraid, in the present position of affairs, to 
resort to illegal taxation. He therefore found it necessary, 
after eleven years delay, to summon a Parliament, which 



188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

assembled in April, 1640, but, proving hostile to the court, 
was dissolved. 

The Scotch Covenanters invaded England, and took pos- 
session of the four northern counties ; Charles, unable to op- 
pose them, granted their own terms, and summoned another 
parliament. 

The legislature met on the third of November, 1640, a day 
memorable as the commencement of the Long Parliament. 
The Commons determined at once to strike a blow against 
the court, assumed an offensive position, and impeached the 
Earl of Strafford, the principal agent of Charles's measures. 
This powerful nobleman, notwithstanding the personal exer- 
tions of the king, his great services to the country during his 
administration in Ireland, and his powerful and eloquent de- 
fense, was attainted by bill and executed. Soon after the 
impeachment of Strafford, Laud was accused of high treason, 
and committed to prison ; and, to avoid a similar fate, Lord 
Keeper Finch and Secretary Windibank fled the country. 

Several powers exercised by lieutenants and deputy lieuten- 
ants of the counties in the late military operations, which al- 
though customary, were not authorized by statute, were now 
voted illegal, and the persons who had assumed them declared 
delinquents. The star-chamber and the High Commission Court 
were abolished. The persons who had been confined by the 
command of Laud were released; and all those whom the 
king had employed during the last twelve years to carry into 
effect his arbitrary measures, were summoned to answer for 
their conduct. 

The country party, up to this time, adhered to their origi- 
nal principles ; but the Puritans now began more openly to 
profess and advocate republican opinions. 



CHARLES I. 189 



SECTION III. 

Charles, after the execution of Strafford, being almost with- 
out advisers, opened a negociation with the leaders of the 
opposition, and invited the Earl ofBedford to form an adminis- 
tration. Pym was to have been chancellor of the exchequer, 
Hollis secretary of state, and the education of the Prince of 
Wales was to have been entrusted to Hampden. The sudden 
death of Bedford prevented the completion of this arrange- 
ment, to which it may be doubted whether Charles would 
ever have permanently consented. 

From this period the proceedings of the Commons became 
more determined and hostile. They not only accused thir- 
teen bishops of treason, in enacting canons without the con- 
sent of Parliament, but they prevented the spiritual lords 
from exercising their parliamentary privileges. These meas- 
ures produced an effect favorable to Charles, by a division 
among his opponents, and a party called the " Constitutional 
Royalists " arose. Lord Falkland, Hyde (subsequently Lord 
Clarenden) and Culpepper, were the leaders of this party : 
in the early stages of the struggle with Charles, they had 
been supporters of popular rights; but seeing a tendency to 
republicanism in the majority of their coadjutors, determined 
to adhere to the cause of royalty. 

The king, alarmed at the impeachment of the prelates, de- 
termined once more to act on the offensive, and hastily 
adopted an expedient, after which all hopes of peace be- 
tween him and his Parliament were at an end. On the 3d 
of January, 1642, the attorney-general appeared at the bar 
of the upper house, and impeached Lord Kimbolton, Hamp- 
den, Pym, Hollis, Haslerig, and Stroud, of high treason, in 
endeavoring to subvert the law, and deprive the king of his 
just power. Charles, by a serjeant-at-arms, demanded of 
the Commons, the persons of their five members; but his 
officer was dismissed without a positive answer. He then 



190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

gave a still further evidence of his imprudence, by resolving 
to go in person to the house with an armed force, and there seize 
the leaders of the opposition. The five members had re- 
ceived an intimation to withdraw, a few minutes before the 
king entered. Charles, accompanied by two hundred of his 
guards, and many gentlemen of the court, proceeded to 
Westminster, and, leaving his retinue at the door, entered 
the house. The speaker vacated the chair, and the king 
took possession of it. He looked round the house, and not 
seeing the obnoxious members, inquired if they were present. 
The speaker answered, he was merely the organ of the house, 
and that he had neither eyes to see, ears to hear, nor tongue 
to speak, but as he received the directions of Parliament. 
Charles made a few observations as to lhe motives which 
influenced the speaker, and was heard in solemn silence ; 
and, as he passed along the benches, was greeted by low but 
audible murmurs of " Privilege ! privilege ! " 

Next day Charles proceeded, amid the hootings and shouts 
of the populace, to the common council at Guildhall, to 
whom he justified his conduct towards the accused members, 
and hoped they would not find protection in the city, where 
they had taken refuge. The citizens listened in silence, and 
made no reply. On his return to the palace, the streets re- 
sounded with the cry of " Privilege of Parliament ! " and 
Walker, an ironmonger, bolder than the rest, gave the watch- 
word of mutiny among the Israelites, by exclaiming, " To 
your tents, oh Israel ! " 

■ The five members returned to their duties in triumph, 
while Charles, humbled and dismayed, retired to Hampton 

Court, from whence he wrote to parliament, promising satis- 
faction. This concession only added to the indignation of 
the Commons, who insisted on the name of his advisers, to 
which request he returned no answer. 

The Commons proceeded to strip the crown of its just 
prerogatives. They obliged the king to entrust the Tower, 

Hull, and Portsmouth, to persons appointed by parliament; 



CHARLES I. 191 

and demanded that the officers of the militia should be nom- 
inated by them. The king received this demand when at 
Dover, attending the queen and his daughter, the princess of 
Orange, who were about to leave the kingdom, to procure 
funds for the anticipated struggle; and requested leisure to 
consider a matter of such great importance: The Commons, 
knowing it was now too late to recede, pressed for his deter- 
mination, and desired the command of the army for a limited 
time. Charles, in a burst of rage, answered by exclaiming, 
" No, not for an hour ! " The contest was now (1642) only 
to be decided by the sword ; and the parliament, as well as 
Charles, appealed to arms. 

Charles had a strong party in the country : the Church, 
the universities, and a majority of the nobles, and of the old 
landed gentry, naturally adhered to the king; while the aus- 
terity of puritan manners, drove the gay and dissolute youth 
to the royal standard ; and a dread of democratic violence 
induced many good, brave, and moderate men, who disliked 
his measures, to espouse his cause. The royal party, in con- 
sequence of their illustrious descent, were called Cavaliers. 
On the other side, parliament was supported by the great 
body of the middle orders of England, the merchants, the 
yeomanry, headed by a formidable minority of the peerage, 
and the landed gentry. On account of their short-cropped 
hair, this party was contemptuously designated the Round 
heads. 

Charles, with the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York, 
retired to York, where, after a useless negotiation with 
the Commons, he prepared for war. Never did a war 
seem more unequal than the present, at its commencement. 
Parliament was certain of resources, while the king's sup- 
plies had been stopped ; the troops raised for Charles' ser- 
vice in Ireland, were employed against him in England ; and 
London, in one day, added four thousand men to the army of 
his opponents. The king was supported only by the rustic 
and hardy retainers of his followers. The forts, magazines, 



192 HISTORY OF ENGIiAND. 

arms, ports, and fleets, were in the hands of Parliament 
while Charles alone relied on the open counties of the north. 
The general - in-chief of the Parliamentary forces, was the 
Earl of Essex, a man of some military experience, and mod- 
erate abilities. The royal troops were commanded by the 
Earl of Lindesay,- and prince Rupert, the king's nephew. 

The first engagement of importance between the two forces, 
took place at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, which was long 
and desperately contended. Six thousand men are reported 
to have been slain, and the victory was claimed on both sides ; 
although the king reaped the advantage by the retreat of Es- 
sex, which enabled him to march, without molestation, to 
Oxford, where he was joyfully received. 

SECTION IV. 

The recital of the events of the civil war would prove neither 
interesting nor instructive. The queen returned from Hol- 
land with money and supplies, with which Charles reinforced 
his troops. Success, during the campaign of 1643, inclined 
to the royal cause. The parliamentary general, Fairfax, was 
defeated by the Earl of Newcastle, in the North ; while, in 
the West, the Roundheads were driven back to the sea-ports, 
and afterward routed at the battle of Stratton, and obliged 
to take refuge in Bristol, which surrendered to Prince Rupert. 
To compensate for these mischances, the towns of Reading, 
Winchester, Chichester, and Hereford, fell into the hands of 
the parliamentary forces, and the city of Gloucester was 
relieved by Essex. 

During this campaign, each side had the misfortune to lose 
a powerful supporter; the Parliament, in the person of the 
undaunted Hampden, who was desperately wounded in a 
skirmish with Prince Rupert, and died, exclaiming in the mo- 
ment of his last agony, " Lord Jesus, receive my soul ! Oh 
Lord ! save my country ! " In Hampden were united all the 
qualities which, at such a crisis, were necessary to serve tho 



CHARLES I. 

interests of his party. In him, valor and energy, discernment 
and eloquence, and stern integrity, were united. With Hamp- 
den ceased all hopes of a victory unsullied by excess : public 
good, durable tranquility, and temperate freedom, were buried 
in his grave. 

Charles met with a loss, to him irreparable, in the virtuous 
Lord Falkland, who, during the conflicts of civil war, in which 
circumstances forced him to participate, constantly sighed for 
peace. He was shot by a musket-bail, at the battle of New- 
bury, 20th of September ; and is one of the few personages 
who in his life was honored, in his death respected. 

In order to prepare for the ensuing campaign, during the 
winter of 1643, the king summoned his adherents to Oxford, 
to hold a parliament ; while the Long Parliament continued 
to sit at Westminster. The Royal House of Commons did 
not amount in numbers to one-half the Roundhead House. 

The strength of parties about this time was so equal, that 
the issue of the war was still doubtful ; and parliament, as 
well as the king, began to look for assistance from other na- 
tions. Charles applied to the Irish, parliament to the Scotch. 
For the latter purpose, commissioners were sent to Edinburgh, 
to negotiate an alliance with the Scottish nation. In this 
negotiation, the English interests were chiefly confided to Sir 
Harry Vane, a man who, in an age distinguished for active 
talent, had no superior in eloquence, capacity, and dissimula- 
tion. By his persuasion the Solemn League and Covenant 
was framed, which, besides binding the subscribers to defend 
each other against all opponents, compelled them to extirpate 
popery, prelacy, and heresy, to maintain the rights of parlia- 
ment, and to bring to justice all the supporters of the royal 
cause. They vowed to maintain the reformed religion, as 
adopted in Scotland ; but, by the artifice of Vane, no decla- 
ration more explicit was made as to England or Ireland, than 
that these kingdoms should be reformed according to the word 
of God, and the example of the purest Churches. The Scotch 
Presbyterians, assuming their own to be the purest Church, 



194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

never doubted it was intended to serve as a model for England. 
But the artful Vane, as the leader of the Independents, had oth- 
er views ; in his eyes the presbytery and the prelacy were as near 
akin, as prelacy and popery were in the eyes of the Scotch. 

Parliament also received twenty-one thousand troops from 
Scotland, under the command of Lesley, Earl of Leven. 
Charles had the aid of his Irish auxiliaries, under the com- 
mand of Lord Byron. The Marquis of Newcastle lay at 
Durham with fourteen thousand, and Prince Rupert was at 
the head of eighteen thousand royalists. Besides the Scotch, 
the parliament had two armies, one led by Lord Fairfax, the 
other by Lord Kimbolton, now the Earl of Manchester. 
Leven joined with Fairfax, and they besieged the city of York ; 
in defense of which city Newcastle advanced. Their united 
arms seemed insufficient to reduce York, till the arrival of 
Manchester. Even then, the three armies contented them- 
selves with a blockade ; but, on the approach of Prince 
Rupert, Manchester, Leven, and Fairfax abandoned the siege, 
and prepared for battle on Marston Moor, July 1st, 1G44. 

Both armies amounted to nearly the same number, twenty- 
three thousand men, of whom a great proportion was cavalry. 
In the first encounter, the royalists were victorious. The 
right wing of the parliamentary forces, under the command 
of young Fairfax, gave way, and fled ; but the left, under 
Oliver Cromwell, rushed on the royalists as they were ad- 
rancing to the baggage of their opponents, and the battle was 
renewed, after both armies had reversed their front, and 
changed their ground. The contest now was short, bloody, 
and decisive; the royalists were entirely routed. Prince 
Rupert retired, with his shattered forces, into Lancashire, 
leaving the whole train of his artillery in the hands of the 
conquerors ; York and Newcastle surrendered ; and the au- 
thority of Fairfax was established in the North. 

To counterbalance these disasters, tho army of Essex was 
obliged to capitulate in Cornwall, to Prince Maurice; he 
himself with difficulty escaped. 



CHARLES I. 195 

The nation, however, began to feel harrassed by civil 
tumult and broils, and, in compliance with the public feeling, 
negotiations for peace were once more renewed, and again 
failed. Dissensions now began to creep into the parliamen- 
tary councils, and first showed itself when, on the motion of 
Cromwell, and by the support of the Independents, (that 
body of the English parliament who wished for the abolition 
of Church government, and an equality of ranks) an act was 
passed in the House of Commons, by which the members of 
both houses were excluded from all civil and military em- 
ployments, with a few more exceptions. Cromwell's object 
in this measure was to transfer the command of the forces 
from the Presbyterian to the Independent party. In pursuance 
of this law, Essex, Manchester, and the other Presbyterian 
leaders, resigned their commands ; and the army was bestowed 
on Fairfax, a disinterested man and an able officer, but who 
unconsciously became subservient to the views of Cromwell. 
The entire army was also newly modelled, and the officers 
appointed were, almost without exception, Independents. 

Laud, who had long been imprisoned, was now brought to 
trial, condemned, and executed. 

SECTION V. 

Under this new organization of the army, the troops were 
filled with zealots, who mistook their own unpremeditated 
harangues for divine inspiration, and the whole army was a 
prey to fanaticism. The effects of this were fatal to Charles 
at the celebrated battle of Naseby, which was fought (14th 
of June, 1645) between nearly equal numbers. Prince Ru- 
pert, by his furious onset, broke the wing of the enemy oppo- 
sed to him, but committed his usual error in pursuing too far. 
Cromwell also bore down the wing of the royalists opposed 
to his own, but wisely left a detachment to follow them, and 
attacked the exposed flank of the center, where the royal in 
fantry were pressing hard on Fairfax. The result of this 



196 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



movement was decisive : when Rupert returned, the battle 
was lost. The king called out to make one charge more, and 
the day would be their own ; but it was now too late, the ar- 
tillery and baggage being taken, his infantry destroyed, and 
Rupert's cavalry exhausted ; and Charles was completely de- 
feated. Fairfax and Cromwell improved the victory by unin- 
terrupted successes ; Leicester, Bath, Bristol, Bridgewater, 
and other strong places, fell rapidly into their hands. The 
victors then divided their forces : Cromwell reduced Devizes, 
Winchester, and Basinghouse ; and Fairfax, turning west- 
ward, captured the towns of the royalists, and surrounded the 
scattered remnants of their army, in Cornwall. 

After the battle of Naseby, Charles' affairs were irretriev- 
able, and, with the remains of his cavalry, he escaped into 
Wales, and shortly returned to his faithful city of Oxford, in 
utter despair. Charles now resolved to grant parliament their 
own terms, but unfortunately it was too late : they reproached 
him with the blood spilt during the war; and informed 
him they were preparing some bills, to which, if he con- 
sented, they would then be able to judge of the sincerity of 
his intentions. 

Fairfax, with a powerful force, was rapidly advancing on 
Oxford, and the choice of escape or surrender alone remained 
to Charles. In this dilemma, he adopted the resolution of 
flying to the Scotch army. After encountering many difficul- 
ties, with but two attendants, he placed himself under the pro- 
tection of Lord Leven, at Newark. 

The assistance of the Scotch to the parliament was grounded 
on a belief that it would support the Presbyterian form of 
church government in England; and when they now found 
the predominating party to be the Independents, they were 
less zealous in the aid they afforded. Arrears of pay, and 
want of supplies, still more deeply exasperated them. Charles 
perceiving this dissatisfaction, endeavored to widen the breach 
between the Scotch and his English opponents ; but his at- 
tachment to episcopacy prevented all attempts at accommo- 



CHARLES I. 197 

dation witn. them. Parliament then entered into a treaty 
with the Scotch for the liquidation of the arrears of pay ; and 
the latter, well knowing that if they conveyed the king into 
Scotland, in addition to such a measure being ruinous to the 
English monarchy, it would have exposed their nation to the 
most serious danger — delivered Charles into the hands of par- 
liamentary commissioners. He was conducted, under a guard, 
to Holdenby, in Northamptonshire, and debarred from all 
communication with his family and friends. 

The civil war, after having continued four years, was thus 
terminated, as parliament had secured the person of the king • 
and now both the king and the parliament were soon compelled 
to submit to the army. The majority of the house were Pres- 
byterians and constitutionalists ; the majority of the army were 
Independents and republicans. As the war was ended, the 
Scots withdrawn, and the king a prisoner, the former proposed 
to disband a considerable part of the army and send the rest to 
Ireland, where the royal authority was still recognised. The 
army organized a military parliament, in opposition to the 
parliament at Westminster. The chief officers formed a coun- 
cil, to represent the Peers ; the soldiers elected two men 
out of each company, called the agitators of the army, to 
represent the Commons. Cromwell was a member af this 
assembly, which began by accusing eleven of the principal 
members of the Commons of high treason. The only protec- 
tion which parliament could extend to the accused individ- 
uals was permission to retire to the continent, thus yielding 
to the superior power of the army. 

The first submission of right to force, renders force for ever 
pre-eminent. After this first exhibition of weakness, the Com- 
mons were obliged to give way to every demand of the agita- 
tors, which increased in proportion to the concessions extorted. 
A party of five hundred horse, commanded by Cornet Joyce, 
originally a tailor, took possession of the king's person at 
Holmby Castle, where he was then confined, and conveyed 
him to the army, near Cambridge. Cromwell arrived next 



198 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

day, was received with acclamation, and invested with the 
supreme command. 

Oliver Cromwell, who occupied for several years the most 
conspicuous place in English history, was descended from a 
considerable family, and was the friend and relative of Hamp- 
den. He received a University education, and represented in 
the last parliament the Borough of Huntingdon, but was at 
present a member for Cambridge. He possessed a ready and 
clear judgment, with a perfect confidence in his own powers, 
a knowledge of character almost intuitive, and a capacity of 
the first order for business. In the House of Commons, he 
was a bold though not a frequent speaker, on the popular 
side. He was zealously devoted to the faction to whom he 
had attached himself, and the war had no sooner commenced, 
than he was found in the list of those who undertook to raise 
a troop of horse for the parliament at their own charge. He 
freely associated with his men ; in active service fighting at 
their head ; in seasons of rest, exhorting and praying with 
them. His courage, decision, and good fortune, soon distin- 
guished him as one of the most promising among the parlia- 
mentary officers, and his zeal in the cause, and his energy of 
mind, gradually raised him to his present position. 

SECTION VI. 

No sooner did Cromwell receive the supreme command, than 
he advanced toward London, as near as St. Albans, and pro- 
claimed his intention to remodel the government, as well as 
resettle the whole nation. Fearing the inhabitants of the 
metropolis, he compelled the Commons to vote that the city 
militia should be disbanded. On this, the citizens of London 
made one effort to prevent the total overthrow of the consti- 
tution, and the establishment of a military despotism. The 
common-council summoned the militia, and manned the out- 
works of the city. The respectable inhabitants besieged the 
door of the House of Commons, and obliged them to rescind 



CHARLES I. 199 

the vote they had passed. During this commotion, sixty-two 
of the members in Cromwell's interest escaped to the army at 
Hounslow Heath, who brought them back in triumph, sent the 
Lord Mayor of London, the leading aldermen, and the officers 
of the militia, to prison, destroyed the outworks of the city, 
and all became submission and obedience to Cromwell. The 
Independents, as well as the Presbyterians, secretly treated 
with Charles ; the tenor of the propositions submitted by the 
former, was moderate and respectful to the fallen monarch, 
but they were rejected by him with much haughtiness. The 
extreme tenacity of the king of his prerogative, and his insin- 
cerity frustrated all hopes of accommodation. No sooner, 
however, had the army gained a complete victory over the 
House of Commons, than they began to treat their unfortunate 
prisoner with harshness and disrespect. 

Finding that his prospects of being reestablished in power, 
by his opponents, were passed away, Charles effected his es- 
cape from Hampden Court, where he was confined, and made 
the best of his way to the coast, to obtain a passage to the 
continent. This, however, proving impossible, he was obliged 
to intrust his safety to the governor of the Isle of Wight, 
who being an independent conducted him with outward 
demonstration of respect to Carisbrooke Castle, where he 
once more found himself a prisoner. 

Charles commenced a new negotiation with parliament, 
and might have terminated all disputes, had he consented to 
an extensive diminution of the royal prerogatives ; but, hav- 
ing entered into a secret treaty with his Scotch subjects, he 
was induced to refuse the proposed terms. When parliament 
received his refusal, they resolved that in the settlement of the 
affairs of the nation, no farther overtures should be made to 
Charles, nor any application be received from him. He was 
now more closely confined than before, at Hurst Castle. 

The Commons, however, notwithstanding the resolution so 
lately passed, now made a last effort to protect themselves 
from the increasing power of the army, by voting that the 



200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

concessions of the king were satisfactory. On the following 
day, Colonel Pride, at the head of two regiments, blockaded 
the house, and shut out by force two hundred members, per- 
mitting only sixty determined Independents to remain, who 
passed a resolution, that the late concession of Charles could 
not be accepted, and that their general's conduct was just and 
necessary. This invasion of parliamentary -rights is com- 
monly called Pride's purge, and the members who voted, the 
Rump Parliament. 

It had long been the conviction of the officers of the army, 
that the life of the king was incompatible with their safety; 
and, having overcome the Commons, they determined now 
to sacrifice him. A committee of the house was appointed to 
devise the most eligible mode of proceeding, and they prepared 
" An impeachment of high treason against Charles Stuart, 
King of England." This was followed up by appointing a 
High Court of Justice to try him. 

Colonel Harrison, with a troop of horse, was ordered 
to bring Charles from Hurst Castle to St. James', in anti- 
cipation of his trial. The change which a few years of 
trouble and anxiety had produced in the appearance of the 
monarch, excited general commiseration. He had allowed 
his beard to grow, and his hair had become venerably gray ; 
whilst his apparel afforded proof of misfortune and poverty. 
This pity, however, did not extend beyond his own dominions. 
The princes of Europe looked with cold indifference on the 
awful and unexampled spectacle of a king publicly tried and 
condemned by a court of his own subjects. 

The interval between the 6th and the 20th of January, 
1649, was spent in preparations for the trial. The court con- 
sisted of one hundred and thirty-three persons, named from 
such among the Commons, the army, and the citizens, as were 
known to be favorable to the commonwealth. John Brad- 
shaw, sergeant-at-law, was appointed Lord President. The 
council chosen to conduct the prosecution were, Steele, Coke, 
Dorislaus and Aske. Steele was named attorney-general, 



CHARLES I. 201 

and Coke solicitor-general ; the former, however, was pre- 
vented by real or pretended illness from attending. 

The court sat in Westminster Hall, on the 20th of January ; 
a chair of crimson was placed at the upper end for President 
Bradshaw ; the other commissioners, to the number of sixty- 
six, ranged themselves on either side, on benches covered with 
scarlet cloth ; at the President's feet sat two clerks, at a table 
on which lay the sword and mace, and directly opposite was a 
chair intended for the king. After some preliminary formal- 
ities, Bradshaw ordered the prisoner to be introduced. 

SECTION VII. 

Charles was received at the door by the serjeant-at-arms, 
and by him conducted to the chair placed for him. His step 
was firm, and his countenance undaunted. He did not 
remove his hat ; but, first having seated himself, he then arose 
and surveyed the court with an air of superiority which 
abashed his enemies. The charge was then delivered in by 
Coke, the solicitor-general, and read by the clerk, accusing 
him of being the cause of all the bloodshed which had taken 
place during the war ; and describing him as a " tyrant, trai- 
tor, murderer, and public and implacable enemy to the com- 
monwealth of England." The charge being read, Bradshaw 
demanded Charles' answer. 

The king replied in a grave and collected manner, by re- 
fusing to acknowledge the authority of the court; and con- 
cluded by saying, that when he was satisfied with the juris- 
diction of the tribunal before which he had been summoned, 
he would proceed farther. The second and third days of the 
trial were passed in similar discussions. The court would not 
allow its authority to be disputed ; and the king desired that 
he might give the reasons why he denied its power to try 
him. This produced interruption and altercation, which ter- 
minated in the president ordering " the default and contempt 
of the prisoner" to be recorded. The fourth and fifth days of 



202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the trial were employed in hearing evidence of his having 
commanded in person during several engagements; and on 
the sixth day the court deliberated on the form of judgment 
to be pronounced. 

On the 27th of January, the commissioners sat for the last 
time in Westminster Hall. As the king proceeded along the 
passages to the court, some of the soldiers and rabble set up 
a cry of " Justice ! Justice! Execution!" One of the sol- 
diers on guard, touched with the spectacle, exclaimed, " God 
bless you, sir ! " The king mildly thanked him, but his 
officer struck him with his cane. " The punishment," said 
Charles, " methinks exceeds the offense." When a faithful 
attendant wondered at the insolence of the troops, " So did 
not I," replied he ; " the cry was no doubt given by theii 
officers, for whom they would do the like, if there were occa- 
sion." 

The court had no sooner sat, and the prisoner been pro- 
duced, than Charles demanded a conference with the two 
houses of parliament. The judges, after half an hour's delibe- 
ration, refused, and pronounced sentence of death on the king. 
Charles heard the sentence read in silence, sometimes smiling 
with contempt, sometimes raising his eyes to heaven. At 
the conclusion, the commissioners, sixty-six in number, rose 
in a body to testify their assent, and Charles made a last and 
earnest effort to speak ; but Bradshaw ordered him to be re- 
moved, and the guards hurried him out of the hall. 

After the termination of the trial, the king devoted his 
whole thoughts to prepare for death ; he declined the visit of 
those nobles who wished to offer this last mark of respect, 
saying, " The best office they can now do, is to pray for me." 
Dr. Juxon, Bishop of London, at Charles' request, was ad- 
mitted to assist him in his private devotions. The day before 
his death, at his own desire, he received the farewell visit of 
his children, the Princess Elizabeth, thirteen years old, and 
the Duke of Gloucester, who was in the ninth year of his age. 

Charles, having taken them on his knees, gave them such 



CHARLES I. 203 

a 



advice as was suited to their years. At parting, he divided 
few jewels between them, gave them his blessing, and hastily 
retired to his devotions. 

At this memorable period, the Republic of the United Prov- 
inces was the only foreign power that publicly expressed a 
desire that the king's life might be saved. The queen wrote 
to the House of Commons, requesting permission to attend 
her husband in his extremity, but they disregarded her appli- 
cation. 

On the 29th of January, it was determined that the open 
space before Whitehall was suited for the execution ; and the 
next day was the time appointed. The warrant was signed 
by fifty-nine commissioners. 

On the night before his execution Charles slept soundly, 
and early in the morning called his attendant, and desired to 
be dressed neatly, saying, " This is my second marriage day ; 
I would be as trim as may be, for before night I hope to be 
espoused to my blessed Jesus." He proceeded on foot from 
St. James's to Whitehall, where he resumed his devotions and 
received the Sacrament. At one o'clock he passed into the 
banqueling-house, to the scaffold. It was hung with black. 
At the farther end were seen two executioners, with the block 
and the ax: below were several regiments ; and beyond waved 
a countless crowd of spectators. The king stood collected 
and undismayed. Finding that he could not be heard be- 
yond the scaffold, he briefly addressed Juxon and Colonel 
Tomlinson, denying that he had been in any respect the ag- 
gressor, and concluded by saying he died " the martyr of the 
people." 

When preparing for the fatal blow, Charles, at the sugges- 
tion of Juxon, declared he died in the profession of the faith 
adopted by the Church of England ; and, turning to the pre- 
late, exclaimed, " I have on my side a good cause and a 
gracious God." The bishop replied, " There is but one stage 
more; it is turbulent and troublesome, but a short one; it 
will carry you from earth to heaven, and there you will find 



204 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

joy and comfort." To which the king rejoined, " I go from 
a corruptible to an incorruptible crown." The bishop's last 
words to his royal master were, "You exchange an earthly 
for an eternal crown — a good exchange." Then taking off 
his cloak and George, tbe king delivered the latter to the 
bishop, exclaiming emphatically, "Remember!" Being 
ready, he bent his neck to the block, and, after a short pause, 
stretched out his hands as a signal. The ax instantly des- 
cended, the head rolled from the body, and a deep groan from 
the multitude testified their regret, now too late expressed. 
Thus fell Charles I, in the forty-ninth year of his age. 

Charles, by his determined opposition to the redress of na- 
tional grievances, destroyed the Constitutional party in Eng- 
land, and created the republican faction which destroyed him. 
By his conduct he forced his subjects into a war, in which 
they forgot their duties to the mixed government under which 
they lived. It is impossible to condemn too severely the 
murder of Charles : his execution was neither just nor neces- 
sary, nor was the example likely to prove salutary. The 
Commonwealth was not threatened by dangers so immediate, 
as to justify the taking away the life of an individual on the 
principle of self-defense : he might have been detestable to 
the ruling party, but he had ceased to be dangerous. Neither 
were his offenses of such a character as to warrant a violation 
of law. His government had been arbitrary ; but he was no 
traitor. Future kings of England could gain nothing from 
the example, when the office of king itself was about to be 
abolished. Moreover, the republicans struck at the root of 
their own principles, by the mode in which they effected the 
death of Charles. The whole legislative and judicial systems 
were trampled down for the purpose of effecting that one 
object. 

Charles, in his private character, was not only an amiable 
man, but obtained the esteem of all who new him. His chief 
faults were, a passionate temper and apparent insincerity 
His abilities were excellent, his taste exquisite ; he excelled 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 205 

as a writer and speaker; and, although wanting presence of 
mind as a military commander, he was by no means deficient 
in personal courage. His conduct during his trial and exe- 
cution made a great impression. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE COMMONWEALTH. 

Began 1649 — Ceased 1653 — Continued 4 years. 

The consequence of the termination of the struggle with 
Charles, was the establishment of a republic. In it they found 
shelter from the vengeance of their enemies, and shared among 
themselves the power and emoluments of office. 

A few hours after the execution of Charles, a proclamation 
was issued, declaring it treason to give to any person the title 
of king ; and that the supreme authority in the nation was 
vested with the representatives of the people. In a few days 
the House of Peers was declared useless and dangerous, and 
was abolished. The first year of freedom, as it was falsely 
called, was inscribed on the great seal of England. The 
executive power was entrusted to a Council of State, with 
powers to continue a year. The heads of the law and of the 
army, with five peers, were the persons selected for this office : 
among them were Cromwell, Bradshaw, Ireton, and Martin, 
who were chiefly instrumental in establishing the Common- 
wealth. 

The House of Commons consisted, at this period, of a small 
number of the representatives of the people, all Independents, 
Levellers, Antinomians, or other sectaries ; the Presbyterian 
or Constitutional party was afraid to resume their seats, from 
which it had been expelled by force. In these sudden changes 
of the constitution the people had no participation ; they 



206 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

were effected by the violence of a few fanatics, and submitted 
to from a dread of the power of the army. 

During the war little blood had been shed, except on the 
field of battle, but now we find that the Duke of Hamilton, 
Lord Capel, and the Earl of Holland, (whose only crime was 
attachment to their royal master) were condemned by the 
High Court of Justice, (by which the king had ben tried) 
and executed. 

While the Commonwealth of England was thus laying its 
foundation in blood, its leaders were harrassed by the state of 
Ireland and Scotland. In the former, the advantages gained 
by the Marquis of Ormond and Lord Inchiquin, at the head 
of the royalists, and also by the native Irish, led by their 
chief, O'Neil, caused them serious alarm. Cromwell was 
appointed Lord Lieutenant, and dispatched to that kingdom 
to subdue the insurgents. His progress was rapid, bloody, 
and irresistible. He carried the first towns that opposed him 
by storm, and put the garrisons to death; until, ultimately, 
every town before which he presented himself surrendered at 
discretion. Ormond fled to the continent in despair, and 
Lord Clanricarde, who succeeded to his command, was glad 
to purchase safety for his followers in exile. Forty thousand 
native Irish were allowed by Cromwell to go into foreign 
service ; and, as mercenaries, gained that military glory and 
religious toleration which were denied them at home. Crom- 
well was on the point of reducing the whole island, when he 
was recalled to defend England against the Scots. 

Parliament had invited the Scottish nation to form a repub- 
lic ; but, irritated at the non-establishment of the Presbyterian 
faith in England, and anxious to redeem their fair fame, which 
had been sullied by the delivery of Charles to his enemies, 
they proclaimed his son as their king ; but, instigated by the 
Duke of Areyle, who was at the head of the Covenanters, 
they made their loyalty conditional on Charles' good behav- 
ior. The Scots, having rendered their king a mere puppet, 
determined to place him on the throne of his ancestors. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 207 

Cromwell, within a month after Charles' arrival in Scot- 
land, appeared on the banks of the Tweed, at the head of six- 
teen thousand men. Argyle made the most vigorous prepara- 
tions for his reception. The aged Lesley, Lord Leven, a gen- 
eral who had never been beaten, opposed his cool sagacity to 
the genius of Cromwell. The English, after advancing as far 
as Edinburgh, and finding that Lesley had laid waste the en- 
tire country for the purpose of depriving them of subsistence, 
were obliged, by want and sickness, to retire to the sea-coast, 
near Dunbar. Thither Lesley followed them, and encamped 
on the heights of Lammemuir, above the town, taking posses- 
sion of the passes by which the enemy could retreat to Ber- 
wick. Cromwell's situation became most critical. He had 
resolved to send his foot and artillery by sea, to England, and, 
with his cavalry, to cut his passage through the enemy to Ber- 
wick ; when the madness of the Covenanters at once restored 
his fortunes. The committee of the Kirk, by whom Lesley 
was attended, fancying they had received some special reve- 
lation from Providence, ordered Lesley to descend to the plain 
and to attack the English. Cromwell beheld the descent 
through his glass, and with a presage of victory, exclaimed, 
" They are coming down ; the Lord hath delivered them into 
our hands." When the contest had just commenced, Crom- 
well, turning to his own regiment of foot, said, " Let the Lord 
arise and scatter his enemies." The defeat of the Scots was 
complete : three thousand were slain, and nine hundred taken 
prisoners, while the English did not lose forty men. 

After this victory Cromwell made rapid progress in subdu- 
ing Scotland, and was only prevented from completing the 
conquest by the bold policy of Charles, who determined to 
carry the war into England, relying on the royalists for sup- 
port. Charles, with twelve thousand men, advanced into 
England through Carlisle. Disappointed in meeting with 
that support on which he confidently depended, and being 
pursued by Cromwell, he threw himself into the city of Wor- 
cester, where he was attacked by that victorious general, at 



208 HISTORY OF ENGLANI. 

the head of thirty thousand men, and after a desperate con- 
test on the third of September, 1651, was completely defeated. 
Charles, who had signalized himself by his personal cour- 
age during the battle, underwent a series of almost incredible 
adventures. Though parliament offered a considerable re- 
ward for his apprehension, denounced the penalties of treason 
against those who should shelter him, ordered the magistrates 
to arrest all unknown persons, and to keep a strict watch on 
the sea -ports, Charles, after forty-one days of concealment 
and flight, landed at Fecamp, in Normandy, to the surprise 
of friends and foes, who both believed him to have fallen by 
the hands of some one ignorant of his rank. 

Cromwell, after this victory, returned in triumph to London, 
leaving Ludlow and Monk to pursue the now easy conquest 
of Scotland. He was received with enthusiasm by parliament, 
which, on his recommendation, passed an act for abolishing 
royalty in Scotland, and annexing that kingdom as a province 
to the English Commonwealth. This enactment was well 
received in that country, as it freed the people from the intol- 
erable oppression of the Kirk. The British colonies were 
now also reduced to obedience, and peace reigned in the re- 
public* 

SECTION II. 

The rulers of the Commonwealth, now secure from farther 
opposition at home, turned their attention to the foreign rela- 
tions of England, and resolved to chastise the insolence of the 
republic of Holland. During the civil wars the Dutch had 
shown symptoms of attachment to the royal cause ; after the 
death of Charles, they had also refused to pursue with rigor 
the exiled royalists who had murdered Dorislaus, one of the 
counsel against the king; and the friends of the Prince of 
Orange had, moreover, insulted Mr. Oliver St. John, com- 

* The Countess of Derby, who defended the Isle of Man, had the glory of 
being the last defender, for a season, of royalty in England. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 209 

monly called Cromwell's Dark Lanthorn, the English am- 
bassador. Such were the ostensible grounds for a declaration 
of war against Holland, but perhaps the real motives may be 
found in their hopes of plunder, and also to divert men's 
minds from proceedings at home, by splendid achievements 
abroad. 

A naval war was the consequence of the rupture. The 
English fleet was commanded by Admiral Blake, whose cour- 
age and skill have never been perhaps exceeded by the bright- 
est names which adorn our naval history. The Dutch opposed 
to him the celebrated Admiral Van Tromp. Many engage- 
ments took place between these commanders, in which suc- 
cess was various ; but the Dutch, whose trade suffered severely 
in the contest, sued for peace. The parliament, however, 
gave them a very unfavorable answer; to which they were 
induced by a desire to increase the power of the navy at the 
expense of the army, and so diminish the influence of Crom- 
well. 

The government of the Commonwealth proved unsatisfac- 
tory to the nation, and its partisans daily decreased in num- 
ber. The republicans consisted of the House of Commons, 
which seldom mustered more than one hundred members, and 
whose claim to legal authority as representatives of the peo- 
ple, was unfounded. This attachment to republicanism had 
its origin solely in a desire for power. The republican inter- 
est in the nation was confined to levellers, of whom Lilburne 
and Wildman are the most known, and the ana-baptists, and 
other sectaries, headed by Harrison, Hewson, Overton, and 
others. 

The only bond of union between parliament and the army, 
(to which it owed its authority) had been created and sup- 
ported by Cromwell. He now broke that bond and set these 
two bodies at variance, and employed the one for the destruc- 
tion of the other. The army had always been jealous of 
the excessive power of the parliament; Cromwell secretly 
fomented this jealousy, and the complaints of the officers daily 



210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

increased. They said, with justice, that the present House 
of Commons had too long delayed establishing a free consti- 
tution. By their general's instigation, they presented a peti- 
tion demanding their arrears of pay and redress of grievances. 
The Commons were indignant, and appointed a committee to 
prepare an act declaring such petitions high treason. The 
officers remonstrated, parliament made an angry reply, and 
proceeded immediately to pass the bill before their adversa- 
ries had a time to appeal to the sword. Information of these 
proceedings was conveyed to Cromwell while presiding at a 
council of his officers, who immediately ordered a company 
of musketeers to accompany him to the House of Commons. 

Cromwell, having ordered the troops to remain in the lobby, 
entered the house and composedly seated himself on one of 
the benches. For some time he listened with attention to the 
debate, and then rose to address the house. His language, at 
first decorous, gradually became warm and animated. In- 
dulging in personal vituperation, he was called to order by 
Sir Peter Wentworth, who reminded him that he was the ser- 
vant of the house. On this Cromwell put on his hat, rose 
from his seat, and exclaimed, " Come, come, sir, I will put an 
end to your prating ;" and then stamping on the floor, added, 
"you are no parliament, I say you are no parliament; bring 
them in, bring them in." The door instantly opened, and an 
officer and twenty soldiers entered. " This," cried Vane, 
" is not honest." " Sir Henry Vane," replied Cromwell, 
" Oh ! Sir Henry Vane. The Lord deliver me from Sir Henry 
Vane. He might have prevented this. But he is a juggler, 
and has not common honesty himself." He then poured a 
torrent of abuse on Whitelocke, called Chaloner a drunkard ; 
but suddenly checking himself, he ordered the guard to clear 
the house. Colonel Harrison led the Speaker from the chair ; 
Algernon Sidney was next compelled to leave his seat, and 
the other members rose and moved toward the door. As they 
went out, Cromwell exclaimed, "It is you that have forced 
me to do this I have sought the Lord both day and night, 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 211 

that he would rather slay me, than compel me to do this 
work." Then pointing to the mace, he ordered "that bauble" 
to be removed ; and all the members being ousted, the doors 
were locked, and the Long Parliament dissolved. 

By this act Cromwell forcibly took upon himself the sole 
government ; but the time had not quite arrived for the com- 
plete subversion of liberty ; he therefore sent one hundred and 
forty-four summonses to particular persons to appear at White- 
hall on the 4th of July, 1653, each to take on himself to 
serve the office of member for some particular place. 

These persons were composed of the meanest citizens and 
most furious fanatics. A fanatical leather-seller, called 
" Praise God Barebones," gave his name to this odd assembly, 
and it was calledBarebones parliament. They began by hearing 
thirteen of the most gifted preach in one day; and then pro- 
ceeded to deliberate on the suppression of the clergy, the uni- 
versities, and the courts of justice, and on substituting the 
law of Moses for the established code. 

Having offered some slight opposition to the usurper, they 
were ordered to dissolve the assembly, and the majority re- 
signed their authority into Cromwell's hands. Some of the 
members, however, proving refractory, Colonel White was 
sent to eject them from the house. On being asked what they 
did there, their Speaker replied, " Seeking the Lord." " Then 
you may go elsewhere," cried White, " for, to my knowledge, 
the Lord hath not been here for these many years." 
9* 



212 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE COMMONWEALTH. 

OLIVER CROMWELL. 

Bom 1599— Became Protector 1653— Died 1658— Ruled 5 years. 

By the resignation and expulsion of the Barebones Parlia- 
ment, supreme power once more fell into the hands of Crom- 
well and his council of officers. Cromwell having now 
attained the object of his ambition, the power and authority, 
though not the title, of king, was declared, 16th of December, 
1653, Protector of the Commonwealth of England. The 
executive power was placed in his hands, but the legislative 
functions of the government were vested in himself and a 
parliament. A council to assist him was appointed, the 
members of which enjoyed their offices during their good 
behavior. 

Cromwell lost no time in directing his attention to the 
settlement of public affairs, both foreign and domestic. By 
his policy he made the rights of England respected on the 
continent. At home his administration of justice was pure 
and impartial : the courts were filled with able and upright 
magistrates, and the practice of the law freed from many 
abuses; and he exercised his prerogative of mercy with pru- 
dence and clemency. 

The war with the Dutch still continued, but they were at 
last completely humbled at sea by two successive victories, 
gained on the 3d and 29th of June, 1654, by Blake over 
Van Tromp, in the latter of which the Dutch admiral fell, 
and the enemy lost thirty ships. They sued for, and obtained 
peace, on consenting to recognize the British empire over 
the sea, abandoning the interests of the Stuarts, and paying 
a large fine to the East India Company. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 213 

Cromwell assembled a parliament of the United Kingdom 
in the year 1654, which immediately, on its meeting, proceeded 
to examine the power by which it had been convened. 
Alarmed at this display of independence, he compelled the 
members to sign a recognition of his authority, on pain of 
forfeiting their subsequent admission to the house. Parlia- 
ment, however, continued discussing the various regulations 
prescribed in the instrument of government he had promul- 
gated, and at length the Protector abruptly dissolved it 
before the expiration of the period prescribed by himself for 
its duration. 

The Protector, thus compelled to relinquish all hopes of 
maintaining his usurpation with the consent of a parliament, 
now conducted his affairs for nine months with the assistance 
of his council alone. Encouraged by an unsuccessful insur- 
rection of the royalists, he replenished his exhausted treasury, 
by confiscating the tenth part of the property of the insur- 
gents. He divided England into twelve districts, over each 
of which he placed a major-general to superintend the exe- 
cution of this order. 

The unproductive glories resulting from the Dutch war did 
not satisfy the military ambition of Cromwell, and in the 
hope of obtaining, by plunder, those supplies he was unwil- 
ling to procure by the aid of a parliament, he equipped two 
squadrons, one of which, commanded by Blake, ravaged the 
coasts of the Mediterranean, while the other, under Vena- 
bles and Penn, made an unsuccessful attempt on the island 
Hispaniola ; but steering to Jamaica, took that island without 
a struggle. 

These unwarrantable attacks on the Spanish colonies pro- 
duced a formal declaration of war from Spain. The genius 
of Blake again crowned the British navy with victory. This 
gallant sailor, hearing that a Spanish fleet of sixteen ships 
of immense treasure had taken shelter in the Canaries, with 
his fleet pursued them, and boldly sailing into the port of 
Santa Cruz, burnt them, though seven castles defended the 



214 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

harbour. Blake now determined to return home, and died 
within sight of his native land. The name of Blake will 
ever be associated with those of our first naval heroes ; and 
our respect for his character and admiration of his genius will 
be increased, when we recollect that, though he mourned over 
the usurpation of Cromwell, he did not allow his private 
political opinions to influence his conduct as the servant of 
his country. 

The public tranquillity at home, and the luster of the 
national achievments abroad, induced Cromwell, in obedi- 
ence to the popular wish, to summon another parliament. 
This he determined should be obedient to his will, and he 
procured it to be chiefly chosen by his own creatures. It met 
on the 17th of September, 1656, and, lest any members of a 
doubtful description should enter the house, guards were 
placed at the doors, and none admitted but such as produced 
a warrant from the council. 

Cromwell had by this time discovered the instability of 
authority founded solely on military power. By the aid of 
this Parliament, he attempted to raise himself to the kingly 
dignity. The proposal being formally made in the house, was 
easily carried; and nothing now seemed wanting but Crom- 
well's own consent to have his name enrolled among the 
kings of England. This consent he had not resolution to 
give, in opposition to the remonstrances of the principal 
officers of the army, who, being republicans, were violently 
opposed to it, and threatened, if he did so, to abandon his 
service. 

Thus frustrated in their object, the monarchical party next 
arranged a form of government, which they called a Protec- 
torate. By it, Parliament, in future, was to consist of two 
Houses, one chosen by the people, the other nominated by 
the Protector, with the approbation of the existing parliament. 
From the former, no person elected was to be included, except 
by its own decision : into the latter no new member was to 
be admitted without its consent. By these arrangements the 



THK COMMONWEALTH. 215 

Protector was completely entangle!, and placed at the mercy 
of the new legislature. This became manifest before they 
had sat a month ; and Cromwell swore " by the living God 
they should not sit longer," and dissolved them on the 4th 
of February, 1658. 



SECTION II. 

It is impossible to conceive a situation more distressing than 
that to which Cromwell was now reduced; and yet, to super- 
ficial observers, he appears about this time to have reached 
the summit of his ambition. At home he had detected, 
defeated, and punished all conspiracies against him ; abroad, 
his alliance was sought with eagerness. Notwithstanding 
this appearance of power and influence, approaching ruin was 
visible. His expenditure had far outrun his income ; he had 
neither money nor the means of procuring it at his command. 
His intentions were all misrepresented, and the most injurous 
imputations thrown out by his enemies. Dissatisfaction was 
once more excited toward his government, plots began to be 
generally formed against his life ; human wisdom and fore- 
sight were insufficient to extricate him from the difficulties 
that encompassed him. 

Death relieved Cromwell from his embarrassments. The 
cares of government had for some time been undermining his 
constitution ; and the increasing weight of public affairs, 
joined to his blighted prospects, acting on an enfeebled body, 
completely paralyzed all his exertions. He could not sleep ; 
and the dread of assassination haunted him day and night. 
He wore armour under his clothes, and carried loaded pistols 
in his pockets. Domestic afflictions aggravated his personal 
sufferings. The loss of his beloved daughter, in August, 
inflicted so severe a shock on his feelings, that he never 
recovered the blow, and a slow fever ensued, which terminated 
his life on the 3d of September, 1658. 



216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

While the usurpation of power by Cromwell merits only 
detestation, and the system of his government was tyrannical, 
yet it is no small testimony to his genius, that the Protector- 
ate is one of the most brilliant eras in English history. He 
established England at the head of Protestant Europe. He 
augmented the naval reputation of his country, and taught 
every nation to value her friendship and to dread her enmity ; 
he rebuked the insolence of France, humbled the power of 
Spain, and almost destroyed the maritime superiority of Hol- 
land. He had, doubtless, personal ambition, but with it was 
intermingled a devoted attachment to his country. As a 
commander, he never fought a battle without gaining a vic- 
tory : and never gained a victory without annihilating the 
force opposed to him. As a statesman, he must be looked 
upon as destitute of all principle, and ready to sacrifice 
character, the constitution of his country, and his king, to 
gratify his grasping ambition. In estimating his measures, it 
is never to be forgotten that he ruled a people hostile to him, 
and his usurpation was necessarily a series of experiments 
introduced, as the necessity of the situation in which he was 
placed impelled him. 

On the death of Cromwell, his son Richard succeeded in 
the Protectorate ; it was doubtful whether he was appointed 
so by his father. He immediately called a parliament. To 
this assembly the army presented a remonstrance, desiring a 
general in whom they could confide. But the house voted 
such a remonstrance unlawful ; on which, the officers sur- 
rounding Richard's house, obliged him to dissolve the parlia- 
ment, and he soon afterward signed an abdication of the 
government. 

The officers, thus at liberty, restored the remnant of the 
Long Parliament, called " The Rump." But no sooner was 
it reinstated in authority, than it began to destroy the power 
by which it was replaced. Its dissolution was immediately 
resolved on. General Lambert drew up some troops in the 
streets leading to Westminster Hall, and ordering the horses 



THE C0MM0NWEALH. 217 

to be taken from the carnage of the Speaker, Lenthall, con- 
ducted him home. A military government was now appointed, 
over which the officers appointed a committee of twenty-three 
to preside. 

On learning the forcible dissolution of parliament, General 
Monk, who was in Scotland, with eight thousand troops, 
protested against it, and resolved to defend the remnant of 
his country's constitution. As soon as he had put his army 
in motion, he found himself eagerly courted by all parties ; 
but so cautious was he of declaring his intentions, that no 
one knew which side he would take. 

The military party made preparations to oppose Monk, 
who entered into negotiations with them, until the soldiers, 
tired with their intrigues, deserted them. Monk in the mean 
time advanced, received the thanks of the House of Parlia- 
ment, which had once more resumed its sittings, and entered 
into cooperation with the Corporation of London. Parlia- 
ment, however, soon became alarmed at his proceedings, 
dissolved itself, and summoned a new one ; while Mc nk 
remodelled his army, expelling those officers on whom he 
could not depend. 

All this time Monk still persisted in his silence as to 
his intentions, and communicated his plans only to Morris, 
a gentleman of Devonshire, whose grave and studious dispo- 
sition attracted the confidence of the general. Sir John 
Granville, who had a commission from Charles, applied for 
access to Monk, but was requested to communicate his busi- 
ness to Morris. Granville declined, on which Monk disclosed 
to him his intentions as to the restoration of the king. In 
consequence of this communication, Charles came from the 
Spanish territories to Holland, there to await the result. 

The elections were in favor of the royal party : and on the 
meeting of the Convention Parliament, on the 25th of April, 
1G60, Sir Harbottle Grimstone, a royalist in heart, was chosen 
speaker. Although the general feeling was to admit Charles 
on easy terms, yet, such was the caution of Monk, that for 



218 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



several days, no one in parliament dared to mention the 
king's name. At last Monk directed Annesley, president of 
the council, to inform the House of Commons that one Sir 
John Granville, a servant of the king, had been sent over, 
and was now at the door with a letter. After some manoeuv- 
ring, this message was received ; Granville was called in, the 
letter read, and the king's proposals accepted. He offered a 
general amnesty, save those whom parliament should except. 
He promised liberty of conscience in matters of religion, and 
other favorable measures. 

In consequence of this agreement between the king and the 
parliament, Montagu, the English admiral, waited on Charles, 
to inform him that the fleet awaited his orders at Scheveling. 
The king embarked without delay, and, landing at Dover, 
was received by Monk, whom he created Duke of Albemarle, 
and honored with particular marks of attention. He entered 
London on the 29th of May, 1660, his birth-day, amid the 
acclamations of the people. 



During the last forty years, the agitation of universally inter- 
esting questions of politics and religion was highly conducive 
to popular information, by presenting immediate and stimu- 
lating motives to inquiry. That noon of the poetic literature 
of England, which shone upon the reigns of Elizabeth and 
James, was followed by an afternoon of imaginative, but 
manly prose, hardly less glorious, which lasted down until 
after the restoration. 

Music, which had flourished under Henry VIII, who was 
himself a good composer, and under the successive reigns of 
his three children, who were all well instructed in the art, 
continued to be patronized by James and Charles, and a pro- 
fessorship of music was established in Oxford, in 1622; but 
lay dormant during the Commonwealth. Painting and sculp- 
ture, though well patronized, especially by Charles, did not 
prosper in English hands. Artists were hired from abroad. 

That gradual improvement in the condition of the people 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 219 

in general, which has been remarked, of the latter half of the 
sixteenth century, continued during the first half of the seven- 
teenth, scarcely interrupted by the civil wars, and notwith- 
standing the increasing numbers of helpless poor, for whom 
legislation had yet found no adequate relief. The population 
of England* and Wales was, in 1622, reported at about six 
millions and a half. 

The state of commerce may also be expressed in the precise 
language of figures. For the year 1613, the entire value of 
exports was £2,090,640, and that of imports £2,141,283. 
In 1622, the value of exports amounted to £2,320,436, while 
the amount of the importations was £2,619,315, which may 
give some idea of the ratio of increase. Monopolies were the 
fashion of the time, and they had been accumulated by suc- 
cessive princes. Commerce was chiefly conducted by char- 
tered companies, some of whom were already wealthy and 
powerful. That of the Merchant Adventurers was among the 
most ancient, having been incorporated by Edward VI. They 
were "indefatigable in their efforts to open new courses of 
trade, by encouraging maritime and inland discovery. While 
their navigators penetrated to Nova Zembla and river Oby, 
several of their factors accompanied some Russian caravans 
into Persia, by the route of Astrachan and the Caspian sea : 
and the accounts, which they published on their return, first 
gave British merchants accurate intelligence concerning the 
state of the remote regions of the East." The East India 
Company was incorporated by Elizabeth, in 1600; but about 
this time had sunk very low in resources and enterprise. Be- 
sides these, there was the Russian Company for the trade 
of the Baltic, the South Sea Company, the Turkey com- 
pany, the French company, with many others of inferior note. 

The woolen manufacture was, next to agriculture, still the 
most important branch of national industry. The earliest 
mention of the cotton manufacture in England, is found in a 
work published in 1641, when it was already established at 
Manchester, upon cotton obtained from Cyprus and Smyrna. 
10 



220 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The system of internal posts was first adopted in 1635. 
For foreign correspondence a similar plan had been put in 
operation a few years before. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

CHARLES II. 

Bom 1630— Began to reign 1660— Died 1685— Reigned 24 years. 

Never, perhaps, did any events produce such universal joy, 
as the reestablishment of the monarchy and the return of 
Charles, in the vigor of youth, to the throne of his ancestors.* 
The ascetic gloom produced by fanatical opinions disappeared, 
and the English nation was restored to its " old good man- 
ners, its old good humor, and its old good nature."! These 
excellent characteristics of the country were, however, soon 
to be displaced at court by gross sensuality, prodigality, and 
a disregard of religion. Charles' long acquaintance with ad- 
versity and misfortunes had not restrained the levities of his 
youth. Incapable of application to business, his time was 
devoted to the gratification of his pleasures : ignorant of pub- 
lic affairs, he sought refuge from them in dissipation. His 
fascinating address, and love of society, rendered his exam- 
ple contagious ; and the court imitated to perfection the follies 
of its monarch. 

The conduct of Charles on his accession was mild and con- 
ciliatory ; he appeared desirous of obliterating the recollec- 
tion of past animosities, by uniting all parties in affection for 
their prince and country. Presbyterians shared the royal 

• Who comes with rapture greeted, and caress'd 
With frantic love — his kingdom to regain 1 
Him virtues nurse, adversity, in vain 
Received, and fostered in her iron breast. — Wordsworth. 
t Lord Clarendon. 



CHARLES II. 221 

favor equally with royalists ; men of ability filled the import- 
ant offices of the state. Hyde, Lord Clarendon, an able 
statesman, who owes his reputation, perhaps, to his personal 
virtues in a base and profligate age, was created Chancellor 
and Prime Minister ; and the Treasurer's staff was confided 
to the Earl of Southampton, a man of talent and integrity. 

An act of indemnity was passed to all, with the exception 
of those who had an immediate hand in the king's death. 
Six of the regicides, with four others who had been abettors, 
were executed. They suffered with heroic firmness, and 
considered themselves as martyrs to their principles. 

Episcopacy was now reinstated in power and splendor, 
and the old persecuting laws against nonconformists revived. 
Two thousand clergymen,* in one day, sacrificed their inter- 
ests to their religious opinions, and, rather than subscribe to 
the rigid formula of the Church, relinquished their benefices. 

Certain political measures conspired with those of religion, 
to diminish that popularity which the king had enjoyed at 
his restoration. His marriage with Catherine of Portugal, 
contrary to the advice of Clarendon, and to which he was 
principally induced by the largeness of her dowry, was by no 
means agreeable to his subjects, who were particularly desirous 
that he should marry a Protestant. The sale of the Port of 
Dunkirk to France discovered his necessities, and the prodi- 
gality which had occasioned them, and produced general 
disgust. The loyalty of Parliament had at first induced 
them to grant Charles liberal supplies, but his toleration and 
encouragement of Popery now led them to become more 
cautious. 

Clarendon, in his opposition to the Portuguese match, his 
treatment of Charles' mistresses with contempt, and his 
refusal to coincide in a plan to render the king independent 
of Parliament, by a fixed revenue of two millions a year, 

* Their altars they forego, their houses they quit, 
Fields which they love, and paths they daily trod, 
And cast their future upon Providence ' — Wordsworth. 



222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

began to lose the royal favor; and, though he remained in 
power for some years longer, his fall was most evident. 

The prodigality of the king gave rise to a declaration of 
war against the Dutch, with the intention of applying the 
parliamentary grant to the supply of his own profusion. The 
ostensible reason for this measure was, the depredations com- 
mitted by the subjects of Holland on the English traders. 
Charles was resolved on war, from which, in consequence of 
his superior naval force, he looked to derive vast advantages ; 
and, as he was warmly seconded by the nation, Sir Robert 
Holmes was secretly dispatched with a squadron to the coast 
of Africa, where he seized on the Dutch settlements of Cape 
Verd and the Isle of Goree. Another squadron was also 
sent to North America, which took from the Dutch the set- 
tlements now known as New York. These unwarrantable 
proceedings were no sooner known in Holland, than De Witt, 
(in whose character magnanimity, ability, and integrity were 
united) instructed Admiral De Ruyter to revenge these out- 
rages. The war, thus commenced, raged with fierceness for 
several years, during which much blood was spilled, and 
much treasure exhausted ; until peace was concluded at 
Breda, 10th of June, 1667. The only advantage which Eng- 
land gained by this war was the acquisition of New York. 

This peace was considered disgraceful to the nation, and 
the blame was thrown on Clarendon, who now became an 
object of general odium. A combination of all parties was 
formed to effect his ruin ; the king deprived him of the seals 
as chancellor, and dismissed him from his councils ; and the 
Parliament impeached, and then banished him. He retired 
to France, where he remained in privacy until his death. 

Charles now began to govern in a very arbitrary manner, 
and consequently sought ministers who would extend his 
prerogative, and furnish him with the means of gratifying his 
pleasures. He therefore entrusted the public affairs to the 
management of a set of men who were designated the Cabal, 
from the initials of the names of which it was composed. 



CHARLES II. 



223 



The first, Sir Thomas Clifford, was brave, generous, and am- 
bitious ; endowed with a mind capable of forming, and a 
heart ready to execute, the most hazardous projects. Sir 
Anthony Ashley Cooper, a friend of Cromwell, but better 
known as Lord Shaftesbury,* was possessed of talents of the 
highest order, but made them subservient to his passions and 
his interests. The Duke of Buckingham! was a compound 
of levity and immorality, ambition and extravagance. Lord 
Arlington covered the deepest cunning under the most insin- 
uating address. The last was the Duke of Lauderdale, who 
made it the grand object of his policy to advance his own 
fortunes by securing the royal favor, and who allowed 
neither moral nor political principles to interfere with his 

interests. 

The counsels of these persons were pernicious and dishon- 
orable. They were prepared to betray their king or their 
country. The monarch did not place much reliance on them, 
for he deceived them in a secret negotiation with France. 
The first effects of the advice given by the Cabal, were an 
alliance with France, and a rupture with Holland. But, 
although the disgrace of both transactions belongs to them, 
yet the secret articles of the treaty (by which, in considera- 
tion of an annual pension from Louis, Charles agreed pub- 
licly to profess the Catholic religion, and join the former in 



* The lines of the immortal Dryden would alone have sent Shaftesbury 
down to posterity with no enviable character: 

" For close designs and crooked counsels fit, 
Sagacious, bold, and turbulent of wit; 
Restless, unfixed in principles and place ; 
In power unpleased, impatient of disgrace 

In friendship false, implacable in hate; 
Resolved to ruin or to rule the state." 

t A man so various, that he seemed to be 

Not one, but all mankind's epitome : 

Stiff in opinions—always in the wrong — 

Was everything in turns, but nothing long ; 

Who, in the course of one revolving moon, 

Was chemist, fiddler, statesman, and butloon.—Drydcn. 



224 



HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 



a war against Holland) were known only to Arlington and 
Clifford.* The Duke of York now openly professed the Cath- 
olic faith ; and liberty of conscience was proclaimed to all 
sectaries. These things gave great and just alarm to the 
people, who began to entertain violent jealousies against the 
Court, which were heightened by the apprehensions of a 
Catholic successor. 

The early part of Charles' reign was marked by two awful 
calamities. In 1665 the plague broke out in London, and 
raged so dreadfully, that sixty-eight thousand five hundred and 
ninety-five persons perished. The following year was as fear- 
fully distinguished by the great fire of London, in which eighty- 
nine churches and thirteen thousand two hundred houses 
were consumed. The ruins of the city extended over four 
hundred and thirty- six acres. The cause of the latter misfor- 
tune was ascribed to the Roman Catholics, though with little 
justice. The strictest investigation, however, could not dis- 
abuse the public mind of this unfavorable impression. 

SECTION II. 

The Dutch, unable to withstand the combined power of France 
and England, were driven almost to the last extremity. The 
murmurs of the English at seeing this brave and industrious 
people, the supporters of the Protestant cause, on the brink 
of ruin, were too loud not to reach the king. Parliament, 
which met in February, 16*73, began by attacking the king's 
exercise of his prerogative. The famous Test Act against 
Catholics was passed. This law caused Clifford to resign the 
treasurer's staff, and the Duke of York the post of lord high 
admiral. Charles endeavored to seek his safety by exposing his 
ministers to the vengeance of parliament ; but Shaftesbury and 
the Cabal put themselves at the head of the opposition, and 
urged the repeal of those very unconstitutional acts in which 

* An original copy of the entire treaty is still in the possession of Lord 
Clifford of Chudleigh. 



CHARLES II. 225 

they had so deeply participated. Charles, finding that he 
could not procure supplies for carrying on an unpopular war, 
made a separate peace with the Dutch. 

The toleration of Catholics, so much desired by Charles, 
and the bigotry of the Duke of York, heir apparent to the 
crown, (who was zealous for the restoration of the Catholic 
religion) excited an idea that the Protestant religion was in 
danger ; when the rumors of a Popish plot, in 16*78, threw the 
whole nationlnto alarm. 

The chief mover in this dreadful affair, (which occasioned 
the loss of so much innocent blood) was an adventurer named 
Titus Oates, one of the most profligate of mankind. Having 
been educated for the Church, he obtained a small living, 
which he was obliged to resign as he was prosecuted for per- 
jury. In his necessities he came to London, where he became 
a dependent on Dr. Tonge, a city divine, whose sole employ- 
ment consisted in circulating rumors of plots. By his advice 
Oates appeared to conform to the Catholic faith, and, in order 
to discover the designs of the papists who were connected 
with the English court, he visited different parts of France 
and Spain, and resided for some time in a seminary of Jesuits 
at St. Omers, from which he was at last dismissed for mis- 
conduct. 

Oates returned to England full of resentment against the 
Jesuits, and, in conjunction with his patron, Tonge, contrived 
to bring a series of unfounded charges against the Catholics. 
One Kirby, a chemist, was employed to communicate the in- 
telligence to the king. The objects of the pretended plot 
were the murder of his majesty, the subversion of the govern- 
ment, and the ^establishment of the Catholic faith. The 
alarm instantly spread over the nation, and accident after 
accident, arising in a manner unparalleled in history, con- 
curred to support the delusion. The king himself at first dis- 
believed the story ; on which Tonge went to the lord treasurer, 
Danby, and told him that a packet of letters, written by Jes- 
uits concerned in the plot, had that night been sent to one 



226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Bedingfield, who was confessor of the Duke of York, and who 
resided at Windsor. These letters, which were forgeries, had 
actually been received a few hours previously by Bedingfield, 
who delivered them to his patron, and the duke had shown 
them to the king as a forgery. 

In order to give greater effect to this fabrication, Oates 
went before Sir Edrnondbury Godfrey, a magistrate distin- 
guished by an active and independent spirit, and deposed to 
the particulars of his fabrication. He swore to many consul- 
tations among the Jesuits (to which he had been privy) for 
the assassination of Charles ; that Grove and Pickering, Jes- 
uits, were at first appointed to shoot the king, but it was after- 
ward resolved to destroy him by poison ; for this purpose they 
bought over Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician and 
a Catholic. Oates was afterward examined before the king 
in council, where he betrayed the grossness of his imposture, 
by repeated prevarication. So great was the excitement pro- 
duced in the nation, that apprehension and terror every-where 
prevailed, and the most absurd fictions were received as facts. 
The Catholics named by Oates were apprehended ; among 
them was Coleman, late secretary to the Duchess of York. 
At the suggestion of Oates, Coleman's papers were seized, 
and copies of some letters to Catholic clergymen of note 
abroad were found. Coleman was a wild enthusiast in the 
Romish faith, and in this correspondence had insinuated 
many extraordinary things for the reestablishment of popery. 
He founded his hopes on the zeal of the Duke of York, and 
alluded in obscure terms to his expectations of aid from 
abroad. 

Another incident completed the general delusion and in- 
creased the fears of the nation. This was the murder of Sir 
Edrnondbury Godfrey. After having been missing for some 
days, he was found dead in a ditch, near Primrose Hill, with 
his sword thrust through his body, and his money untouched. 
From these circumstances it was asserted that he had not per- 
ished by the hands of robbers ; and it was therefore ascribed 



CHARLES II. 227 

to the resentment of the Catholics. To deny the existence of 
the plot was now to be considered an accomplice. 

At this moment, (21st of October, 1618) when popular 
phrenzy had reached its height, parliament assembled. The 
cry of the plot resounded through both houses. The Com- 
mons voted an address for a solemn fast, and a form of prayer 
was framed for the occasion. Oates was brought before them, 
and at the bar of the house, accused several Catholic peers, 
who were committed to the Tower. Both houses declared 
their belief in the plot, and thus parliament gave a sanction 
to that fury with which the people were already animated. 
The infamous Oates was rewarded with a pension of £1,200 
a year, had apartments in Whitehall, guards were appointed 
for his protection, and he was called the savior of the nation. 
The employment of an informer became honorable, and 
among these detestable wretches, men high in office were to 
be found. A fit coadjutor for Oates appeared in the person 
of a man still more infamous, William Bedloe, who confirmed 
Oates' assertions. 

SECTION III. 

So long as this extraordinary delusion lasted, every species 
of cruelty and injustice was perpetrated. The people were 
glutted with the blood of Catholics. Coleman, Grove, Pick- 
ering, were among the earliest victims to popular vengeance. 
When they were brought to the bar, the witnesses for the 
defense were in danger of being killed by the mob. Judges, 
juries, and spectators, were equally indifferent to justice, and 
equally eager for revenge. This reign of blood and horror 
lasted for two years, and was, in a great measure, staid by 
the legal murder of the venerable Lord Stafford, who was pro- 
nounced guilty by a small majority of his peers ; and when he 
protested his innocence on the scaffold, the people cried out, 
" God bless you my lord : we believe you." This event broke 
the delusion ; the alarm by which they had been hurried 



T28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

into such excesses was now dying away; and on taking 
a calm and deliberate survey of the late proceedings, they 
were disgusted with the crimes which had been committed. 
It is sufficiently evident that the plot* of Oates had no real 
existence ; but it can not be doubted that the Catholics were 
desirous of restoring the power of the Pope in England, and 
were not very scrupulous in the means they adopted to com- 
pass their end. 

In the midst of these proceedings, parliament, which had 
now sat for seventeen years, was dissolved, and a new one 
summoned, in which the violent opinions of the anti-Catholic 
party were more numerously supported. The king's connec- 
tion with France alienated the affections of his subjects ; 
while the avowed religious tenets of his brother were a greater 
source of jealousy and discontent. The opposition resolved 
to strike at the root of the evil, and therefore brought in a bill 
for the exclusion of the Duke of York from the crown, which 
passed the lower House, but was vigorously opposed by the 
Court, and lost in the Lords. Apprehending danger from mil- 
itary force, the standing army and guards were voted illegal, 
and therefore disbanded. As a security for civil freedom,! 
the celebrated statute of Habeas Corpus was passed, which 
confirms to the subject an absolute security against tyranny 
and oppressive power. This act prevents any English subject 
being sent to a prison beyond the sea ; and orders, that no 
judge shall refuse to any prisoner a writ by which the jailor is 
directed to produce in court the body of such prisoner, and to 
certify the cause of his detention. 

* Dryden's description of the plot is perhaps somewhat nearer the real 
state of things — 

" Bad in itself, but represented worse ; 

Not weighed nor winnowed by the multitude, 

But swallowed in the mass, iinchewedand crude. 

Some truth there was, but dashed and brewed with lies 

To please the fools, and puzzle all the wise." 
t Sir W. Blackstone has fixed on the year 1679 as the period at which our 
constitution had arrived at its greatest theoretical perfection; but he admits 
that the times immediately following were times of great practical oppres- 
sion. 



CHARLES II. 229 

When the opposition proposed the exclusion of the Duke 
of York from the throne, they were not unprepared with a 
successor in case of Charles' death. Shaftesbury, the prime 
mover, nattered James, Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the 
king, with the hopes of succeeding to the throne. Mon- 
mouth's disposition rendered him a fit tool for the unprinci- 
pled Shaftesbury. With manly beauty and gracefulness* of 
manners, he combined affability and undoubted courage — 
vain even to folly, versatile in his measures, and deficient in 
judgment. It was hoped, on the removal of the Duke of York, 
that Monmouth would be declared Prince of Wales ; but 
these expectations were blasted by a declaration from the king 
that he was never married to any woman but the queen. 

During these proceedings the Duke of York had retired to 
Brussels, but the indisposition of the king induced him to re- 
turn to England, and after procuring the banishment of his 
rival, Monmouth, who was now the idol of the people, he 
was entrusted with the government of Scotland. Under his 
administration, the covenanters of that kingdom were exposed 
to a persecution disgraceful to humanity. 

The popular measures of the Parliament of 1079, made 
Charles determine to dissolve them, and assemble a new one 
in the following year. The spirit of party raged in England 
with unabated fury. The factions were at first divided into 
the Petitioners and Abhorrers, or those who applied for redress 
of grievances, and such as opposed their petitions. These 
designations, however, gave way to the now celebrated appel- 
lations of Whig and Tory.f 

The new parliament pursued the same line of conduct as 
its predecessor. The Commons decided the legality of peti- 
tioning the king, and violated the Habeas Corpus Act by the 
arbitrary and capricious imprisonment of the Abhorrers. They 

* " Whate'er he did was done with so much ease, 
In him alone 'twas natural to please, 
His motions all accompanied with grace, 
And Paradise was opened in his face. — Dryden. 
\ Whig signifies milk turned sour. Toree is the Irish for " give mo." 



230 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

renewed the vote of the former house, attributing the blame 
of the Popish plot to the Duke of York, and again brought 
in the bill for excluding him from the throne. This bill passed 
after an animated debate, and was carried up to the House of 
Peers, where the cogent reasoning and eloquence of Lord 
Halifax overpowered the influence of Shaftesbury, and it was 
rejected by a considerable majority. The Commons, however, 
declared that until the bill should pass, they would not vote 
the supplies. 

Enraged at these proceedings, Charles resolved to prorogue 
parliament; the commons no sooner received information of 
his intent, than they declared, that whoever advised his 
majesty to prorogue parliament was an enemy to his country. 
This resolution determined Charles instantly to dissolve par- 
liament, and not prorogue it. 

The violence of the Commons increased the king's friends 
among the people, and gave rise to a system of corruption, 
which was practiced without shame or reserve. The leaders 
of this Whig party resolved to hazard everything, rather than 
abandon the exclusion bill ; and so far forgot their professions 
of genuine patriotism, in the rage of faction, as to submit to 
intrigue with, and be bribed by the French monarch, who 
about this time grew suspicious of Charles, as the latter had 
consented to the marriage of his niece with the Prince of 
Orange, the deadly enemy of Louis. 

The violence of the Whigs disgusted the people, and they 
began to look with more favorable eyes on the court, which 
induced Charles immediately to summon a new parliament, 
to be holden in 1681, at Oxford, intending by this preference 
to show his displeasure at the citizens of London. The elec- 
tions were not favorable to the court; and the popular lead- 
ers, confident of victory, repaired to Oxford, attended by 
numerous bands of their partisans, wearing ribbons in their 
hats, on wdiich were the words " No Popery ! No Slavery !" 

The Commons instantly resumed their inquiries into the 
Popish plot, and the repeal of the laws against dissenters, 



CHARLES II. 231 

and the bill of exclusion: they also impeached Lord Danby, 
Charles' minister. One of Charles' ministers went so far as 
to propose that the duke should be banished from England, 
and that, on the king's death, the next heir should be ap- 
pointed regent. But the past disappointments of the Whigs 
bad soured their tempers to such a degree, that no method 
of excluding the duke but their own could give them satisfac- 
tion ; and they rejected with disdain this proposal, which 
would have left the duke only the barren title of king. A 
dispute with the parliament respecting Fitzharris, an Irish 
Catholic, who pretended that he had discovered another 
Popish plot, more horrible than the last, afforded the king a 
pretence for dissolving them. The king imprisoned Fitzhar- 
ris, the Commons espoused his cause, and Charles, to put an 
end to the unseemly contest, went privately to the house of 
peers, and dissolved parliament. 



SECTION IV. 

Charles now resolved never to call another parliament ; and 
he continued to receive supplies from France. The dissolu- 
tion was popular ; the most flattering addresses poured in 
from all parts of the country, and men seemed to vie with 
each other in granting the king unlimited obedience. The 
temporizing policy of Charles, mistaken for timidity, and his 
love of ease, now turned into severity of temper and jealousy 
of disposition. He encouraged spies and informers, and 
imprisoned all those whom he thought dangerous. Fitzharris 
was brought to trial, condemned and executed. But Charles' 
resentment was principally leveled at Shaftesbury ; no money 
was spared to procure witnesses against him, and royalty 
itself condescended to solicit and suborn evidence against 
him. An indictment for high treason was prepared against 
him, but was thrown out by a grand jury of the citizens of 



232 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

London, who, in these times of general corruption and ser- 
vility, retained a spirit of liberty and independence.* 

The power of summoning juries being in the sheriffs, and 
those officers being elected by the corporation of London, 
the Court resolved to humble the spirit of the citizens. In 
1683 the city of London was deprived of its charter, which 
was only restored on its giving up the free election of the 
mayor and sheriffs. The other corporations, after this arbi- 
trary conduct, were no longer safe ; many were successively 
induced to surrender their charters into tbe hands of the king, 
and large sums were exacted for new charters. 

While Charles was making such inroads on the English 
constitution, and endeavoring to establish a despotism, an 
association was formed, having as its object the restoration 
of freedom. The leaders were the Duke of Monmouth, the 
Earl of Shaftesbury, William Lord Russell, (son of the Earl 
of Bedford) the Earl of Essex, Lord Howard, Algernon 
Sidney, (son of the Earl of Leicester) and John Hampden. 

These men, by an arrangement with the Earl of Argyle, 
planned a rising in Scotland, and also in the West of Eng- 
land. Shaftesbury, whose influence in London was great, 
undertook to promote an insurrection in the city. The 
objects they proposed were the redress of grievances, and the 
exclusion of the Duke of York. Sidney and Essex embraced 
the idea of a republic : but Russell and Hampden, the more 
moderate and popular conspirators, had no views but the 
restoration of the constitution. These schemes had been 
first broached in 1681 ; but the moderation of Lord Russell 
saved, at that time, the kingdom from the horrors of civil 
war. 

Shaftesbury, enraged at the numberless delays which clogged 
and defeated his projects, endeavored to ruin his friends 
in the estimation of the citizens. Convinced that he was 

* Fox, in his " Historical Fragment," has well observed, that to give an 
account of all the oppressions of this period, would be to enumerate every 
arrest, every trial, and every sentence that took place between the Crown 
and the subject. 



CHARLES II. 233 

marked out as the first victim of the Court, he was constantly 
devising insurrections with men of desperate fortunes and 
equally desperate councils. Shaftesbury, knowing that his 
life was at the mercy of the king, when the nomination of 
juries fell into the hand of officers devoted to the crown, left 
his house, and concealed himself in different pa.rts of the 
city ; and by repeated messages, urged Monmouth, Essex, 
and their friends, to rise in arms. But disappointment suc- 
ceeded disappointment ; his fears of discovery increased ; em- 
barking at Wapping, he sailed (in company with Fergusson, 
an Independent minister, and the faithful sharer of his fortunes) 
for Amsterdam. Anxiety and vexation soon relieved Charles 
from his most restless and violent enemy. Shaftesbury expi- 
red about three months after his departure from England. This 
celebrated man possessed many splendid qualities, but was des- 
titute of public virtue and consistency: his abilities can not 
redeem his faults. His impetuous temper often led his associ- 
ates into imprudent measures ; although in the secret of every 
party, his high sense of personal honor never allowed him 
to betray confidence ; and the purity of his administration 
of justice, when chancellor, has been celebrated by the 
immortal verse even of an enemy.* 

After the death of Shaftesbury, his associates held meetings 
in the chambers of West, an active lawyer. Colonel Rum- 
sey, (an officer who had served under Cromwell, and afterward 
in Portugal) Goodenough, and Halloway of Bristol, were the 
chief persons who attended. Lord Howard, an abandoned 
profligate, who sought to redeem his broken fortunes by em- 
broiling his country in civil war, at one time joined them. 
Having invited Keeling, an insolvent vintner, to unite with 
them, this wily man, after entrapping Goodenough into a 
disclosure of their designs in the presence of his brother, and 

* The statesman we abhor, but praise the judge, 
In Israel's courts ne'er sat Abalteden 
With more discerning eyes, or hands more clean, 
Unbribed. unsought, the wretched to redress : 
Swift of dispatch, and easy of access. — Dryden. 



234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

thus procuring the two witnesses requisite to convict prison- 
ers of treason, discovered the plot to the Secretary of State. 

The substance of this disclosure was, that a plot had been 
formed to assassinate the king and the duke on their return 
from Newmarket, at a farm-house called Rye, belonging to 
Rumbold, a maltster; but this plan being frustrated, in con- 
sequence of a fire at Newmarket, which caused the king to 
return sooner than was expected, the design of an insurrec- 
tion was abandoned. He further stated that £20,000 was to 
be raised by the Duke of Monmouth and others ; that Lord 
Russel and his friends had promised to engage in tlfe design, 
and to use all their interest to compass the death of the king 
and the duke. 

Proclamations were instantly issued for the apprehension 
of the conspirators. West, Rumsey, and Shephard surren- 
dered, and tried to purchase their safety by naming the con- 
spirators. Essex, Russell, Sidney, and Howard, were com- 
mitted to the Tower ; and Monmouth, Ford, and Lord Grey, 
fled. 

SECTION V. 

The sacrifices to the Court supremacy began by the trial and 
conviction of three of the minor conspirators, on the evidence 
of their associates. Lord Russell was the first victim to the 
Whig opposition. He united mildness of disposition with 
severity of public principle; his chief anxiety was to rescue 
religion from the errors of Catholicism, and the nation from 
arbitrary government. He was brought to trial on the 13th 
of July, 1683, and was convicted of treason on the evidence 
of Lord Howard, a man of no principle, who, by coming for- 
ward as a witness, hoped to obtain pardon and reward. He 
swore that Russell was engaged in the intended insurrection, 
but did not dare to implicate him in the design of assassinat- 
ing the king. The scaffold for his execution was erected in 



CHARLES II. 235 

Lincoln's Inn Fields. With his dying breath he declared his 
ignorance of any plot against the king's life or the govern- 
ment. Without fear he laid his head on the block, and at 
two strokes the executioner severed it from the body. The 
very day on which Russell was executed, the University of 
Oxford passed their famous decree, enforcing passive obe- 
dience. 

Algernon Sidney was next brought to trial, before Chief 
Justice Jeffries. From his earliest youth Sidney had been an 
enthusiastic republican; he had equally opposed the uncon- 
stitutional measures of Charles I, the usurpation of Cromwell, 
and the arbitrary proceedings of the reigning Charles. Al- 
though a leading member of the Long Parliament, he refused 
to participate in the trial of the late king; he rejoiced in the 
termination of the Protectorate ; but went into voluntary ban- 
ishment on the restoration. His private affairs, however, de- 
manding his return, he applied for and obtained a pardon. 
His only object, during his political career, was the establish- 
ment of a republic in England ; unaccompanied by it, a 
redress of grievances and reform of abuses appeared to him 
useless. It may be easily conceived how obnoxious he was 
to the court, and how eagerly the present occasion was seized 
on to remove him. 

Only one witness deposed against Sidney, and this was 
Lord Howard. As two witnesses are necessary to convict a 
prisoner of treason, for the second, the court produced papers 
containing speculative opinions on government, written by 
him long before, and probably never intended to be published, 
which were received by the infamous Jeffries as legal evi- 
dence, although the identity of the hand-writing was only to 
be inferred from problematical testimony ; and the connection 
of these papers with the present offense was only attempted 
to be proved from corrections, and their position on Sidney's 
desk at the moment of his arrest. By this compound of wick- 
edness, unparalleled in the history of judicial tyranny, this 

great and excellent man was condemned to death. At his 
10* 



236 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

execution Sidney displayed the greatest courage ; allowed no 
friend to accompany him ; refused the aid of the ministers of 
religion ; and when he was asked if he did not intend to ad- 
dress the spectators, he replied, " he had made his peace witn 
God, and had nothing to say to man ;" he delivered a written 
justification of himself to the sheriffs, and then placed his 
head on the block, and bade the executioner perform his duty. 

The iniquity of Sidney's sentence, and the heroic firmness 
of his death, have rendered his memory, despite some blem- 
ishes, an object of respect and veneration.* 

Halloway, a Bristol merchant, and Sir Thomas Armstrong, 
were the last victims. Hampden was tried, but the crime of 
high treason not being proved, he was fined £40,000. Lord 
Essex was found in his apartment, in the Tower, with his 
throat cut. The Duke of Monmouth received a royal par- 
don, but soon retired to Holland, where he resided during the 
remainder of his reign. 

The court was now triumphant, and the Whigs retired from 
the contest. The discussion of liberal principles was prohib- 
ited ; the duty of passive obedience was inculcated from the 
bench and the pulpit. The king now directed his attacks 
more against the civil rights and liberties of his subjects. 
Convictions against evidence, enormous fines, cruel impris- 
onments rendered Charles despotic, and filled the minds of 
all good men with despondency ; but happily this tyranny was 
brief. 

On the 2d of February, 1085, Charles was seized with a 
fit of apoplexy. He recovered sufficiently to advise the 
Duke of York as to his future conduct. During his illness 
Catholic clergymen were summoned to his bedside, to whom 
he privately declared himself a Papist, and received the rites 
of the communion. On the 4th of February he lost the fac- 



* Ungrateful country, if thou e'er forget 
The sons who for thy civil rights have bled! 
How, like a Roman, Sidney bowed his head, 
And Russell's milder blood the scaffold wet. — Wordsworth. 



CHARLES II. 23"7 

ulty of speech, and shortly expired. His death was by many 
attributed to poison, but this appears to have no foundation. 

In person, Charles was tall and well proportioned, with a 
swarthy complexion and austere features; in manners gay 
and affable, delighting in social converse, and even detesting 
ostentation and ceremony ; and regarding nothing but amuse- 
ment. His insuperable antipathy to business concealed his 
talents, which were of a high order. 

Charles was entirely destitute of a proper sense of his dig- 
nity in relation to foreign states, his only ambition being to 
enslave his subjects. He humbled and disgraced his king- 
dom, by becoming the pensioner of a foreign power opposed 
to the best interests of the nation. Public virtue is sought 
for in vain, either in the sovereign, or, with a few glorious 
exceptions, in the opposition. The love of sturdy justice and 
plain good sense ceased, for a time, to be characteristics of the 
nation. Poetry forgot its nobler purposes, philosophy its 
great end, and religion its sacred character. The faction of 
the opposition was only equalled by the tyranny of the court. 
Among the important laws passed in this reign, was the abo- 
lition of the military tenures of landed property, the last 
remains of the feudal system. 



238 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

JAMES II. 

Bom 1633 — Began to reign 1685— Abd. 1688 — Reigned three years. 

The spirit of the opposition had, during the close of the last 
reign, yielded to the ascendency of the court ; and, on the 
death of his brother, James ascended the throne. The first 
step of the new monarch was to issue a declaration disclaim- 
ing the imputation, so generally believed, of his being a man 
of arbitrary principles, and promising to maintain the estab- 
lished government, in Church and state. His actions, how- 
ever, accorded little with his professions : he went openly to 
mass : sent an agent to Rome, to make submission to the 
Pope, with whom it was unlawful to hold communication : 
and levied taxes without the sanction of parliament. 

James, however, soon found it necessary to convene a par- 
liament ; and the never-failing popularity of a new king, to- 
gether with the influence of the Crown in those boroughs, the 
charters of which had been violated, procured a House of 
Commons as submissive as could be desired. The profuse 
liberality and servility cf this parliament rendered the Crown 
independent during peace, and impressed James with the idea 
that it was impossible to shake the stability of his throne. 

During the late reign, that portion of the Privy Council to 
which the direction of confidential affairs was entrusted, be- 
gan to be known by the modern name of the Cabinet Coun- 
cil, and consisted, generally, as at present, of the ministers at 
the head of the most important departments of government. 
On the accession, James continued in office the principal ad- 
visers of his predecessor. The most distinguished of these 
was Hyde, Earl of Rochester, now elevated to the station of 



JAMES II. 239 

Lord High Treasurer: he was the undisputed h-ader of the 
Tory party, and a firu defender of th -. Established Church; 
steady in his attachment to James, in every change of fortune, 
and ready to sacrifice for him every thing but his religion. 
Spencer,* Earl of Sunderland, Secretary of State, was rapidly 
rising into that unenviable eminence which he afterward 
attained. He was a minister of great political knowledge, and. 
a man of polished manners. His chaiacter, however, was 
stained by the worst vices of the diplomatic school, dissimu- 
lation, subtlety, and disregard of principle : he was prepared 
to make any sacrifice for office. Saville, Marquis of Halifax, 
Lord President of the Council, was considered the most fin- 
ished courtier of his time ; his early political opinions were 
liberal and popular, but, unable to resist the temptations of 
royal favor, he frequently forgot or concealed them when in 
power. The genius of Halifax rendered his plans too subtle 
to be generally appreciated, and they were accordingly too 
often neglected. Under this administration the disgraceful 
pecuniary transactions between the English monarch and 
Louis XIV continued, and James had the meanness to insist 
on the payment of the arrears of Charles' French pension. 

At the time of Charles' demise, the Duke of Monmouth 
was residing with the Earl of Argyle and other British fugitives 
in Holland, where he was high in favor with the Prince of 
Orange, James' nephew and son-in-law. On the accession of 
James, the prince dismissed Monmouth and his friends, who 
retired to Brussels, where a scheme was formed for an inva- 
sion of England and Scotland. Monmouth undertook the 
expulsion of James from England, and Argyle was to second 
him by exciting an insurrection in Scotland. 

Argyle, who was first prepared, sailed for Scotland, with 
two thousand men ; but the king's authority was there too 
firmly established to be shaken by so inconsiderable a force. 



•Sunderland's mother, Lady Dorothea Sidney, was celebrated in the 
poems of Waller, as Sacharinxa. 



240 HISTORY OF ENGIAND. 

Monmouth, according to agreement, landed in the West of 
England, and although he was then accompanied only by about 
eighty persons, his forces soon increased to three thousand men. 
At the head of these he entered Taunton, and issued a declara- 
tion, asserting the legitimacy of his birth, and assumed the 
title of king. He then proceeded to Bridgewater, where he 
was enthusiastically received ; his friends hourly increased, 
and he was obliged for want of arms to dismiss numbers who 
crowded to his standard. Roused to action by such warm 
attachments, he attacked the king's forces, under the com- 
mand of the Earl of Feversham and Lord Churchill, sent to 
oppose him, at Sedgemoor, on the 6th of July, 1685. The 
rebels drove the royal infantry from the ground, and they 
might have obtained a complete victory, but for Monmouth's 
own misconduct, and the cowardice of Lord Grey, who com- 
manded the cavalry. Grey and the cavalry fled at the com- 
mencement of the action, leaving the undisciplined infantry 
to maintain the contest alone, which they gallantly did for 
three hours; but, at last, overpowered by numbers, gave way. 
About fourteen hundred of the rebels were killed in the battle 
and pursuit, and the same number taken prisoners. 

The duke with a single attendant fled from the scene of 
battle, untill his horse sank under him. He changed clothes 
with a peasant, but was at length discovered lying exhausted 
in a ditch, covered with fern. On his person were found some 
peas, the remnants of three days' sustenance. When captured, 
his spirits gave way, and, bursting into tears, he conducted 
himself in a manner unworthy of one contending for a crown. 
When brought to London, anxious to preserve his life, he was 
induced to make the most abject submission to the king. 
But his entreaties for pardon were in vain. The heniousness 
of his offense, and the unfeeling heart of James, ought to have 
prevented him from entertaining any hopes of mercy. Find- 
ing his efforts ineffectual, Monmouth behaved with becoming 
dignity, and on the scaffold conducted himself with firmness; 
ne spoke little, and made no confession. Before laying his 



JAMES II. 241 

head on the block, Monmouth warned the headsman to per- 
form his duty without trembling ; but unnerved by the admo- 
nition, he missed his aim, and inflicted a slight gash on the 
shoulder. Monmouth raised his body and turned his eyes 
full on him, as if to complain. The executioner struck him 
twice more without effect, and then threw the ax aside, declar- 
ing with an oath that his heart failed him. The sheriffs com- 
pelled him to strike, and another blow completed the awful 
spectacle. 

The horrid cruelty with which James followed up his vic- 
tory, would alone have rendered his memory detestable. The 
illegal severity of Feversham was forgotten in the violence of 
the miscreant, Colpnel Kirke, while the inhumanity of both 
was swallowed up by the legal atrocities of Chief Justice Jef- 
fries.* A commission to Jeffries and three other judges, was 
issued for the trial of the rebels. Jeffries and his creatures, 
accompanied by a strong military escort, proceeded without 
delay on their circuit, which, from its dreadful character, was 
called " Jeffries 1 Campaign." About five hundred prisoners 
were tried and condemned ; of these two hundred and fifty 
were executed ; the rest transported, severely flogged, or per- 
mitted to purchase their pardon of the Chief Justice, who 
remitted the money to the king. As a reward for his services, 
Jeffriesj was created Lord Chancellor. 

SECTION II. 

Having removed the only opponent to his possession of the 
crown, and struck terror into the nation by the treatment of 
the rebels, James proceeded to realize those apprehensions 
which had excited the violence of the exclusionists. He dis- 
missed from office Halifax, the only minister whose senti- 

• The amiable, virtuous, and moderate Evelyn, whose predispositions 
were friendly to James, describes the monster, Jeffries, whom he knew 
well, "by nature cruel, and a slave of the court" 

t There is a letter from Jeffries to James, in which he estimates certain 
prisoners as worth 101 or 1GZ *\ iece. 



242 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

ments were friendly to the popular cause. On the meeting 
of Parliament, the king plainly told the Commons, that the 
militia, (the only constitutional military force) was of no use, 
and that he had augmented the standing army. He then in- 
formed them that he had dispensed with the law, and admitted 
Catholic officers into the army. Parliament, however, ser- 
vile as it was, protested against these stretches of the royal 
prerogative, and was therefore dissolved. 

James, having procured from the judges an opinion recog- 
nizing his right to dispense with the law, thought himself jus- 
tified in countenancing more openly Ids religious friends. 
Four Catholic peers were accordingly summoned to the privy 
council. Sunderland, determined to enjoy office, declared 
himself a convert to the royal faith. Rochester, to his immor- 
tal honor, refused to sacrifice the claims of conscience to 
temporal interests, and rather than comply with the request 
of his benefactor to change his religion, cheerfully resigned 
the treasurer's staff. Lord Tyrconnel, a furious Catholic, 
was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, and the Earl of 
Castlemain, the English ambassador at Rome. 

After thus placing the civil and military authority in the 
hands of creatures devoted to his interest, James resolved to 
compel the Church of England to implicit obedience by the 
force of his ecclesiastical supremacy. To effect this, the 
High Commission Court was revived, in the form of an eccle- 
siastical commission, by which seven commissioners were in- 
vested with unlimited power over the Church. The Protest- 
ant clergy were forbidden to support their opinions by argu- 
ment, even when they justly regarded them in danger. They 
boldly disregarded the injunction, and carried on the contro- 
versy against Popery, with perseverance, ability, and success. 
Among many others, Dr. Sharpe, Dean of Norwich, had dis- 
tinguished himself. Compton, Bishop of London, was com- 
manded to suspend Sharpe from preaching ; but that attached 
friend to the Church answered, he could only legally do so 
after inquiry into the facts, and hearing Sharpe in hisdefense. 



JAMES TI. 243 

For this honest reply the bishop was summoned before the eccle- 
siastical tribunal, and by it suspended from his sacred functions. 

Four Catholic bishops were consecrated, and exercised the 
episcopal duties in their respective dioceses. The Jesuits 
were permitted to erect chapels and found colleges ; and those 
who professed Popery appeared at court in the habits of their 
respective orders. All these acts were committed in direct 
violation of law. 

James sent a letter to the vice-chancellor of Cambridge, 
commanding the admission of Francis, a Benedictine monk, 
to the degree of master of arts, without the usual oaths against 
the errors of Popery. The vice-chancellor refused, and the 
king suspended him ; but the university continuing firm, he 
desisted from further attacks on them, and turned his attention 
to Oxford. 

James next endeavored to make the universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge subservient to his will, and the presidency of 
Magdalen College, Oxford, (one of the richest foundations in 
Europe) being vacant, Farmer, a recent convert to Catholi- 
cism, was recommended to the office by a royal mandate. 
The fellows, after making very submissive applications to the 
king for recalling his candidate, elected Dr. Hughes. For 
this defense of their rights, all were, with the exception of 
two fellows, forcibly ejected, and Parker, Bishop of Oxford, 
a dissolute man and a Catholic, installed president. 

James at this time was about to summon a new Parliament, 
and with this view his first object was to influence the elec- 
tions so as to obtain a more compliant majority in the House 
of Commons. Every way was tried, persuasion and corrup- 
tion were resorted to, the corporations were remodeled so as 
to admit Catholics, and the hope of preferment offered, but in 
vain ; the Church and constitution were in danger, and the 
people stood firm. 

Disappointed in these efforts, as well as in an attempt to 
conciliate the Protestant dissenters, and to form an unnatural 
coalition between them and the Catholics, James determined 
11 



244 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

thenceforth to rely only on his prerogatives, supported by 
military power. In executing this determination, he repub- 
lished his former declaration respecting liberty of conscience. 
Determined to degrade the Protestant religion, he resolved to 
render the Established Church the instrument of its own down- 
fall, and commanded this declaration to be read at the usual 
time of divine service in all churches. 

Such a mandate (the compliance with which by the clergy 
would have been considered by the nation as a desertion of 
their principles) determined them rather to hazard the royal 
vengeance, than fulfill this command. In accordance with 
this determination, six of the prelates, namely, Lloyd of St. 
Asaph, Ken of Bath and Wells, Turner of Ely, Lake of 
Chichester, White of Peterborough, and Trelawney of Bris- 
tol, assembled at Lambeth Palace, and, with the assistance 
of the primate, Sancroft, drew up a petition to the king, 
beseeching him not to insist on their reading the declaration, 
because it was founded on a power declared illegal by Parlia- 
ment. On the presentation of this address, James, enraged, 
exclaimed, " It is a standard of rebellion," and added, " I 
will be obeyed." The succeeding Sundays, 20th and 27th of 
May, 1688, were the days appointed for the declaration to be 
read in the metropolitan churches; the order, however, was 
generally disobeyed. Out of one hundred, the number of 
London clergy at that time, seven only were charged with a 
dereliction of their duty. 

Desirous of breaking down the spirit of the bishops, James 
summoned them to appear before the council to answer for 
their conduct. They appeared, and were informed by Lord 
Chancellor Jeffries, that they would be proceeded against 
according to law, and directed to enter into their own recog- 
nizances (or legal engagements) to appear. This they pe- 
remptorily refused to do, and were committed to the Tower. 
As they were carried by water to the Tower, multitudes of 
anxious spectators crowded the banks of the river, and implored 
the blessings of the venerable guardians of their religion. 



JAMES II. 245 



SECTION III. 

On the day appointed (29th of June, 1688,) for the trial of 
the bishops, they entered Westminster Hall, attended by 
thirty-five peers, and a crowd of gentry. Pemberton, Pollex- 
fen, Levinz, Holt, and Somers, were among their counsel. 
Their trial, which lasted nearly ten hours, was conducted 
with great ability and listened to with the most eager atten- 
tion. Though the judges at that time held their seats only 
during pleasure, two of them had the courage to declare that 
there was no power in the Crown to dispense with the laws. 
The jury retired at seven o'clock in the evening to consider 
their verdict, and after remaining all night in deliberation, at 
nine o'clock next morning declared the bishops " not guilty." 
Immediately these words were uttered, a loud shout* of appro- 
bation arose from those assembled ; it was instantly echoed 
by the populace from without so vehemently, that the sound 
reached the city. The loudest acclamations resounded from 
street to street, bonfires were lighted, and the shouts reached 
Hounslow, where James had encamped fifteen thousand 
soldiers to overawe the people, and were repeated by the 
soldiers in the hearing of the king. He anxiously inquired 
the cause, and being told it was only the soldiers rejoicing 
for the acquittal of the bishops, exclaimed, ready to burst 
with rage, " Do you call that nothing? so much the worse 
for them." 

A few days before the acquittal of the bishops, an event 
occurred, which compelled the Protestants to adopt some 
decisive measure for their security. As long as the king had 
no son, they consoled themselves with the hope that their 
cause might be remedied under the administration of his 

* " A voice from long-expectant thousands sent, 

Shatters the ear, and troubles tower and spire — 
For justice hath absolved the innocent, 
And tyranny is balked of her desire." — Wordsworth- 



246 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

daughter, who had been educated a Protestant, and who was 
married to William, Prince of Orange, the chief support of 
the reformed faith in Europe. These hopes were suddenly 
blasted by the birth of the Prince of Wales, and alarm filled 
the mind of the nation. 

The Prince of Orange had, previously to the birth of the 
Prince of Wales, maintained a secret correspondence with 
the English malcontents, and was ready on any occasion to 
obey the call of the nation to rescue it from the tyranny of 
James. Under the existing apprehension, men of all parties 
who wished freedom for their country, turned their eyes on 
William, and requested his assistance in the recovery of their 
constitutional rights. Whigs, Tories, and Protestant non- 
conformists, all joined in the request. A formal invitation 
to effect this purpose was at last transmitted to the Prince of 
Orange : this memorable document, although it had only 
seven signatures, was stamped with the approbation of thou- 
sands. 

Not satisfied with this formal invitation, several English 
noblemen and gentlemen repaired to Holland, and in person 
encouraged the Prince of Orange to attempt their deliveiance 
from Popery and arbitrary power. William determined to 
accept the invitation, and the more readily, as he perceived 
the malcontents had conducted their designs with prudence 
and secrecy. He took the principal servants of James in his 
pay, and was thus accurately informed of the intentions of that 
prince. His intelligence came through Colonel Sidney, who 
obtained it from Lord Sunderland, who thus betrayed the very 
measures he himself originated. In order to hide his own 
perfidy, Sunderland ridiculed the reports of an invasion from 
Holland, transmitted to James by his ally, Louis, whose 
proffered assistance the king declined. The Prince of Orange, 
meantime, having resolved to interfere in the affairs of Eng- 
land, prepared a fleet and troops in June, 1688. Aware of 
the danger of leaving the United Provinces (which he had 
rescued from the rapacity of France) open to the attacks of 



JAMES II. 247 

so powerful an enemy as Louis, he held conferences with the 
Protestant princes of Europe, who agreed to protect Holland 
during his absence. 

Unwilling to abandon a friend whose interests were so 
closely allied to his own, Louis offered to march an army to 
the frontiers of the Dutch provinces, and thus detain their 
forces at home ; but James, who was not yet roused from the 
security into which he had been lulled, again declined the 
interference of France. 

A spirit of disloyalty manifesting itself in the army and 
navy, at last began to awake the misguided monarch to a sense 
of his danger, when he received a letter from the Marquis of 
Abbyville, his minister at the Hague, desiring him to expect 
a formidable invasion. His actual position at once rushed 
on his view ; he became pale, and the letter dropped from his 
hands. 

No sooner was James convinced of his dangerous situation, 
than he endeavored to repair his former errors, by vigor in his 
military preparations, and liberality in civil concessions ; he 
immediately assembled his fleet, and recruited his army, 
which shortly amounted to forty thousand men. He had 
already summoned a new Parliament, and now declared he 
had resolved to preserve inviolate the Church of England, 
and that Catholics should still remain incapable of sitting in 
the House of Commons. He restored the old charters to the 
corporations ; annulled the court of Ecclesiastical Commis- 
sion ; reinstated the bishops and the expelled president and 
fellows of Magdalen College. These concessions came too 
late ; they were ascribed to fear, and looked on only as tem- 
porary expedients. The nation doubted his sincerity, and 
with calmness and prudence awaited the arrival of their 
deliverer. 



248 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SECTION IV. 



In the meantime the Prince of Orange sailed from Helvoets- 
luyswith a fleet of five hundred sail, and an army of fourteen 
thousand men, and, after some delay, landed his troops in 
Torbay, without opposition, on the 5th of November, 1088. 
The Dutch army marched to Exeter, where the prince circu- 
lated a declaration, detailing his motives and objects. For 
some time after his landing, he could not boast of encour- 
agement ; for ten days he was not joined by any influential 
parties, and actually had begun to think of abandoning the 
enterprise, when Major Burrington having shown the example, 
the prince was joined by the gentry of Devonshire and Somer- 
setshire, and an association signed for his support. Every 
day exhibited new proofs of the general detestation entertained 
of the king's measures by the nation. Various counties suc- 
cessively declared in the prince's favor, and the defection of 
the army followed. Lord Colchester, the king's nephew, was 
the first officer that deserted ; Lord Cornbury followed, and 
several officers of distinction informed Lord Feversham, that 
they could not in conscience oppose the prince. Lord 
Churchill, subsequently Duke of Marlborough, originally 
one of the royal pages, who owed his whole fortune to the 
king's bounty, fled from his unhappy master, whose confidence 
he possessed, and carried with him the Duke of Grafton, the 
late king's natural son. Prince George, of Denmaik, the 
king's son-in-law, and the Duke of Ormond, left him at 
Andover. James, on his arrival in London, having fled before 
the prince, received the news of the desertion of his favorite 
daughter, the Princess Anne, who actually had engaged to 
favor the attempt of her brother-in-law, before he left Holland. 
All the king's firmness of mind now forsook him ; he burst 
into tears, and cried, " God help me ! my own children have 
forsaken me. Oh ! if mine enemies only had cursed me, I 
could have borne it !" 



JAMES II. 249 

The king, on the 30th of November, dispatched three 
noblemen to treat with the Prince of Orange, who, thinking 
the season for negotiation past, continued to advance with 
his army. Meanwhile James, distracted by fears, sent the 
queen and his son into France, and, to complete his folly, 
resolved to follow them. Imprudent to the last moment, he 
ordered the army to be disbanded, recalled the writs for the 
meeting of Parliament, and, in the spirit of an angry boy, 
threw the great seal into the Thames ; and, attended only by 
Sir Edward Hales, fled from his palace at midnight. 

On the news of the king's flight being known, such of the 
peers as were in London, assembled in Guildhall, and resolved 
to execute the functions of royalty. They published a decla- 
ration requesting the prince to arrange the affairs of the nation 
now deserted by the king. William did not hesitate to 
assume the charge thus imposed on him, and had advanced 
on his way to London as far as Windsor, when he was 
informed that the king had been taken in disguise, near 
Feversham. The prince sent orders to James not to enter 
London, but the message came too late. He had already 
reached Whitehall, and the populace, moved by his misfor- 
fortunes, welcomed him with acclamations. 

Notwithstanding this return of temporary popularity, 
James' authority was lost. The Dutch troops took possession 
of the palace, and displaced the English. James, intimidated 
and desponding, obeyed the orders of his son, and retired to 
the seat of the Duchess of Lauderdale, at Ham, and from 
thence to Rochester, while the prince was joyfully received 
in the metropolis. The king, terrified at the harsh treatment 
of his friends, and fearing to suffer the fate of his father, 
renewed, contrary to the wishes of the few who still remained 
faithful to him, his former resolution of leaving the kingdom. 
As the house in which he lodged at Rochester was intention- 
ally left without any guard, he found no difficulty in accom- 
plishing his design. On the 23d of December, he privately 
withdrew at midnight, accompanied by the Duke of Berwick, 



250 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

his natural son, and went on board a large sloop, which 
waited for him in the river Medway. After some delays he 
landed safely at Ambleteuse, in Picardy, whence he hastene l 
to St. Germains, where his wife and child had been most hos- 
pitably treated by Louis. 

James having abandoned his kingdom, William was undis- 
puted master of it. By the advice of the peers, he summoned 
a Parliament or Convention. This assembly having met, 
resolved that as James had endeavored to subvert the consti- 
tution, and had withdrawn himself from the kingdom, he had 
virtually abdicated the government, and that the throne had 
thus become vacant. This memorable resolution having 
passed, the question, who should fill the vacant throne was 
next considered. After much consideration and many warm 
debates, both houses concurred in oertain resolutions, with 
which they publicly waited (13th of February, 1689; on the 
Prince and Princess of Orange, in the banqueting-house at 
Whitehall. The ceremony commenced by the reading of the 
Declaration of Rights, which is at once an exposition of the 
misgoverament which had compelled the nation, represented 
by the Convention, to dethrone the late king, and an assertion 
of ancient rights and liberties, and of the conditions on which 
a successor to the throne was elected. By this memorable 
document it was declared that the Prince and Princess of 
Orange should reign jointly, and that the administration of 
government should be placed in the hands of the prince during 
their joint lives. The Marquis of Halifax, as Speaker of the 
House of Lords, in the name of both houses, representing the 
nation, made a solemn tender of the crown to their highnesses, 
which was accepted by the prince, and William and Mary 
were proclaimed King and Queen of England. 

In private life, James II had many excellent qualities ; he 
was a kind husband and an affectionate father. He was 
brave and faithful, sincere and honorable. As a sovereign, 
also, he had several good traits; he was frugal, attentive to 
public business, and encouraged trade and naval improve- 



JAMES II. 251 

ments. His public conduct was, nevertheless, detestable. In 
his religious opinions, he was a bigot. He sacrificed his 
throne to render himself an arbitrary monarch, and the Cath- 
olic faith the religion of the state. 

The revolution of 1688 terminated the contest between the 
Stuarts and the people of England, decided the important 
question of constitutional freedom and prerogative, secured 
the supremacy of the Protestant religion, reduced the mon- 
archy to its legitimate limits, and restored harmony between 
the nation and the government. Unlike most revolutions, it 
produced immediate good ; the settlement* of the Constitu- 
tion and Crown was conceived with boldness, and has since 
been preserved with prudence. Both Tories and Whigs sacri- 
ficed, on this occasion, their party feelings, to secure their 
country's welfare, and endeavored to place its government 
on solid foundations, without any change of the constitution. 



Notwithstanding the bad government of the two last reigns, 
the resources of the country had greatly enlarged. The prod- 
uce of custom-house duties from being for the year 1660, only 
about £361,356, continued to increase, not regularly, but 
upon the whole, till in 1687, it amounted to £884,955. 

The age was not favorable to the higher style of either 
literature or art ; but it shared the honor of several eminent 
authors, whose views had been formed under the masculine 
education of the Commonwealth, and the foregoing time. 
Such were Hobbes, Milton, Taylor, Cudworth, Waller, 
Browne, with a few who may be deemed their intellectual 
descendants, as Barrow, Clarendon, and Bunyan. Of the 
new race of authors, who sprung up in the spirit of the Restora- 
tion, by far the most valuable, both in verse and prose, was 
John Dryden, in some respects indeed, above his age, which 
found more congenial exponents of its character in Sedley, 

* " He who wishes to reform an ancient state, and constitute it into a free 
country, ought at least to retain the shadows of the old forms." — Machi- 
avel. 



252 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Buckingham, Otway, and Lee. About the beginning of the 
reign of Charles II, we find the earliest mention of a circu- 
lating library. 

The stage, shut up during the rule of the Puritans, was now 
opened : but its true glory had departed. The age of deco- 
rations had come. Its existence ever since has been a slow 
decline, prolonged by stage artifice and many good actors; 
but by few writers meriting comparison with the great of 
Shakspearean times. 

The fine arts, during most of the period, present little of 
note, except the carvings of Gibbons, the engravings of 
Faithorne, and the showy pictures of Lely, till the appear- 
ance of Purcell in music, and Wren in architecture, both of 
whom began to rise to public reputation toward the revolution. 
The condition of the laboring classes was injured by the 
depreciation of money, while their wages remained nominally 
the same. 

But while heartless dissoluteness, foppery and profanity 
were the prominent features of the court, seldom has history 
to record more abundant evidence of virtue and true piety 
among the people — an evidence extorted by the rack of perse- 
cution. The Baxters and Bunyans, the two thousand Eng- 
lish divines, who abandoned their living for the cause of truth, 
were but the representatives of a large body of the people, 
whose influence ultimately effected a majority. 



WILLIAM III. 258 



CHAPTE R XXXII. 

WILLIAM III. 
Born 1650— Began to reign 1689— Died 1702— Reigned 12 years. 

William's only title to the throne was the good-will of the 
people ; and he began his reign by endeavoring to secure it. 
In England he granted toleration to all his Protestant subjects ; 
and in Scotland he reestablished the Presbyterian religion. 
Although the king formed an administration, consisting chiefly 
of those who had been instrumental in raising him to the 
throne, yet the stream of honor and preferment ran strongly 
in favor of the Whigs. This appearance of partiality was 
extremely disagreeable to the Tories. Signs of dissatisfaction 
were also soon discovered in other quarters. Universal dis- 
content prevailed at the favor shown to foreigners ; the 
reserved temper of the king, and his dislike to pomp and 
ostentation, disgusted the citizens of London ; while the Cal- 
vinistic opinions of William were offensive to the clergy. 

To the former political parties of Whigs and Tories, 
another was now added, since properly distinguished by the 
appellation of Jacobites, who wished to restore James. 

The Whigs, who had suffered much for their principles 
during the late reigns, and through whose instrumentality, 
chiefly, the revolution had been brought about, conceived 
that they had a right to office. To render the king entirely 
dependent on Parliament for supplies, was one of the meas- 
ures they adopted to secure themselves power. They kept a 
watchful eye on the royal revenue ; and by declaring that 
enormous sums had been misapplied, they obtained a vote 
that a certain sum should be devoted to the king's household, 
and that the residue of the taxes should be devoted for public 



254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

purposes, under the control of Parliament. William was 
indignant at this want of confidence in him ; when the Tories 
seized the opportunity, and offered him their support, which 
he accepted, and dismissed the Whigs from office. The 
Tories voted to the king the revenues of the excise for life, 
and the customs during four years. 

Early in the session of the first Parliament, both Houses 
united in an address to William, assuring him of their support 
in a war against France. William received it with joy, and 
instantly concerted measures with the other princes of Europe 
against their common enemy. The ill-feeling between France 
and England first appeared in Ireland. The great body of 
the people in that country were Catholics, and adherents of 
James. The Earl of Tyrconnel, a violent Papist, was Lord 
Lieutenant. Immediately after the revolution, he endeavored 
to secure the favor of William, by a pretended wish to sur- 
render the kingdom to him ; but failing in this, he strenuously 
urged James to appear there in person. On the declaration 
of war against France, Louis determined to render James sub- 
servient to his views, and resolved to aid him in making a 
descent on Ireland. 

On the 7th of March, 1689, James sailed from France, and 
in a few days landed at Kinsale, in Ireland, with one thousand 
two hundred of his native subjects in the pay of France, and 
several of the best officers in the French service. He was 
immediately joined by Tyrconnel, with thirty-eight thousand 
men ; and all Ireland, except Londonderry, declared in his 
favor. Ten thousand troops, under the command of Duke 
Schomberg, William's principal general, were sent to oppose 
him, but were able to effect little during the first campaign. 

The miserable situation of the Protestants in Ireland, at 
length induced William to attempt their relief in person. 
Accordingly he arrived at Carrickfergus, on th-e 14th of June, 
1690, and assumed the command. His troops, amounting to 
thirty-six thousand men, were in health and spirits, and 
anxious to engage. The two armies met on the banks of the 



WILLIAM III. 255 

river Boyne, on the first of July ; a sanguinary battle ensued, 
which ended in the complete rout of James' forces. That 
unfortunate monarch fled, under the protection of his French 
auxiliaries, to Dublin, and committed the most fatal act of 
which a prince contending for a crown is capable : he deserted 
his own cause, and retired to France with his borrowed army. 

The Irish, however, though abandoned by James and his 
ally, were not yet conquered ; they rallied at Limerick, and 
repulsed William, who, obliged to attend to his English 
affairs, returned to London. After many engagements, the 
battle of Aughrim, fought on the 12th of July, 1691, decided 
the contest in favor of William. The Irish, completely 
defeated, retreated to Limerick, where, finding themselves 
surrounded, they capitulated. A treaty, called the Treaty of 
Limerick, was signed, by which a general pardon was granted. 

Disappointed of success in Ireland, and encouraged by 
intrigues in favor of James in England, Louis assembled a 
fleet of sixty-three vessels, at Cape La Hogue, for the invasion 
of this country : and James himself assumed the command of 
'he invading army. Admiral Russell was ordered out with 
the fleet ; and, having formed a junction with the Dutch 
squadron, bore down on the enemy off La Hogue. An engage- 
ment took place on the 19th of May, 1692, which lasted ten 
hours, and terminated with the defeat of the French, and the 
loss of fifteen of their best ships. James witnessed this 
destruction of his hopes from the shore, and exclaimed, with 
a mixture of regret and admiration, on seeing the French 
fleet set on fire — " Ah, none but my brave English tars could 
have performed so gallant an action !" 

Some plots to assassinate King William, (which ended in 
the destruction of those who had formed them,) were the only 
further attempts in James' favor. The war, however, with 
France, continued down to the year 1697, when it was put 
an end to, by the general pacification of Europe, at the peace 
of Ryswick. By the treaty then concluded, Louis acknowl- 
edged the title of William ; a poor equivalent, say most histo- 



256 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

rians, for the treasure England had spent, and the blood she 
had shed, during a long war ; forgetting entirely, that, from 
the effect of this alliance, the importance of the political 
balance of power became so strongly felt in England, that all 
danger of its being lost in practice ceased ; and that the 
British continental policy, for the first time, was placed on a 
proper basis, by attaching England to Austria, the second 
power of the continent, in opposition to France aspiring to 
universal empire. 

SECTION II. 

William, now freed from foreign enemies, proceeded to 
strengthen his power at home. He attempted to persuade 
Parliament that the safety of England rendered it necessary 
to maintain a standing army, and that her commercial inter- 
ests required the protection of a powerful navy. The Com- 
mons, however, voted disbandonment of all forces in the pay 
of England, exceeding seven thousand men, and that those 
retained should be natural born subjects. With reluctance, 
William acquiesced in this determination, he endeavored 
to procure the consent of Parliament to his retaining his 
faithful Dutch guards, but in vain ; his message to the Com- 
mons on the subject, was treated with disrespect. In a par- 
oxysm of rage, the king conceived a design of resigning the 
government, and retiring to Holland, and actually prepared 
a speech to Parliament for that purpose. The remainder of 
William's reign was troubled with similar altercations, 
equally injurious to the best interests of England, and dis- 
graceful to his opponents. 

After the peace of Ryswick, the attention of William was 
called from these internal commotions to objects of more 
general interest to Europe. Charles II of Spain was fast 
approaching his end, without issue. The princes wdio might 
pretend to succeed him were, the Dauphin of France, the son 
of his eldest sister, who on her marriage with Louis XIV, 



WILLIAM III. 257 

renounced the Spanish succession ; the electoral prince of 
Bavaria, grandson of a younger sister ; and the Emperor 
Leopold, son of an aunt of Charles of Spain. William, to 
preserve the balance of power among the great nations of 
Europe, entered into a secret alliance with Louis, in 1699, 
for the partition of the Spanish succession, by which it was 
agreed that the pretensions of France, Austria, and Bavaria, 
to Spain, should be compensated by the transfer of separate 
provinces of that monarchy. Circumstances afterwards ren- 
dered a second partition treaty requisite, which was agreed to 
by William and Louis, and communicated in secrecy to the 
Emperor, who informed the Spanish monarch of its contents. 
Charles, irritated at this interference with his dominions, 
made a will, by which he bequeathed his inheritance to the 
archduke Charles, second son of the Emperor. Soon after 
the execution of this will, the king of Spain grew worse, and 
the nearer he approached the grave, the more violently was 
his timid mind agitated by the intrigues of the different parties. 
He was ultimately persuaded by the priests who surrounded 
his bed, to ask the advice of the Pope as to his will. The 
pontiff, distrusting the house of Austria, advised him to make 
a new will in favor of France, but that the person appointed 
to succeed him should not be the eldest, but Philip duke of 
Anjou, second son of the dauphin. Charles followed this 
advice, and soon after died (1700). 

This testament, after long deliberation, was accepted by 
Louis, who thus violated all the solemn engagements he had 
entered into relative to the Spanish succession. William, at 
first, showed himself disposed to be satisfied even with this 
new arrangement, provided the duke of Anjou, then Philip V, 
of Spain, would renounce all claim to the throne of France. 

Although from their nature, the negotiations and contents 
of the partition treaties, which will ever be recognized as the 
policy of a master mind, required the utmost secrecy ; yet 
Parliament, in the genuine spirit of faction, complained that 
they had not been informed of the transactions, and the 



258 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Commons in their resentment, impeached the lords Halifax, 
Portland, and Somers, for their participation in the business, 
and addressed the king to remove them from his presence. 
On the day appointed for the trial, the Commons, under the 
pretence that the peers had done injustice to them, in refusing 
to comply with some forms of procedure on which they insisted, 
did not appear to support their impeachment, and the lords 
were acquitted. 

Queen Mary having died without issue, and there being no 
prospect of any children by the princess Anne, Parliament, 
in 1701, passed an act for the limitation of the crown to the 
Protertant issue of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, a child of 
princess Elizabeth, late queen of Bohemia, and daughter of 
James I. In this act are incorporated many clauses for 
better securing the rights and liberties of the people. 

Although the reasons assigned by Louis for his non-fulfil- 
ment of the partition treaties, were by no means satisfactory 
to William, yet as he was not in a condition immediately to 
support his resentment by decisive measures, he cautiously 
concealed it, and the Emperor of Germany was left alone to 
dispute the title of Philip V. William, still frustrated in his 
wishes by Parliament, at last determined to assist Leopold, 
and with this view, negotiated with him the famous treaty, 
generally known as the grand alliance. The avowed objects 
of this celebrated alliance were to procure satisfaction to the 
Emperor touching the Spanish succession, obtain security to 
England, prevent the union of the monarchies of France and 
Spain, and hinder the French from possessing the Spanish 
dominions in America. 

At this juncture, in the month of September, 1701, James 
II died at St. Germains, and thus ended a life which had 
been chequered by every vicissitude of fortune. Although, as 
King of England, his conduct naturally excited indignation, 
yet it is impossible to contemplate him as a pensioner on the 
splendid and generous bounty of Louis XIV, without conced- 
ing him some commiseration. 



WILLIAM III. 259 

On his death, Louis, in violation of the treaty of Ryswick, 
acknowledged his son James, now better known as the old 
Pretender, king of England. This deliberate insult roused 
the spirit of the nation. Parliament, on meeting, sanctioned 
the grand alliance, and voted forty thousand men, and a fleet 
to be equipped with forty thousand seamen, with supplies 
adequate for their maintenance, to avenge this indignity. 
The Emperor Leopold having thus obtained assistance in his 
opposition to the claims of Philip, proclaimed his second son 
King of Spain, as Charles III. The war of the succession in 
Spain was about to commence, and the career of Louis 
toward universal monarchy interrupted, when William met 
with an accident which terminated his existence. While 
riding from Kensington to Hampton Court, his horse fell 
under him, and he was thrown with such violence that his 
collar-bone was fractured. He was in consequence seized 
with a fever, and after lingering about six days, expired on 
the 8th of March, 1702, in the fifty-second year of his age. 

Whether we consider William as a statesman, a warrior, 
or a monarch, there are few more celebrated names in the 
pages of history. He preserved this country from popery 
and arbitrary power, and laid the foundation of that alliance 
which ultimately curbed the power of France : a power 
destructive of the liberties of Europe. To firmness of temper 
and intrepidity of spirit, he united a noble simplicity of mind. 
He was open and sincere to his subjects, merciful to his ene- 
mies, temperate to his opponents, warm and steady in his 
private friendships. He was imbued with an unaffected and 
sincere sense of religion, and deeply impressed with " that 
fairest flower of cultivated humanity," a love of religious 
toleration. William was in person of the middle stature ; 
his body was slender and his constitution delicate. His 
deportment was grave, phlegmatic, and sullen. The only 
occasions on which he discovered any animation were on the 
field of battle. 

In this reign the bank of England was established, and the 
11* 



260 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

East India Company placed on a firm basis. The great 
error of the reign, unavoidable perhaps it might have been, 
was the system of borrowing money for the public service at 
interest, in anticipation of the future resources of the nation 
being sufficient to liquidate the debt. 



CHAPTEE XXXIII. 

ANNE. 

Born 1664 — Began to reign 1702 — Died 1714 — Reigned twelve years. 

William was succeeded by the Princess Anne, the eldest 
surviving daughter of James II ; she was the wife of Prince 
George of Denmark. The new queen, a woman of feeble and 
narrow mind, was easily swayed by those of her own sex who 
surrounded her. For many years previous to her accession 
her conduct had been wholly influenced by Lady Marlbo 
rough, (the wife of Lord Churchill, who deserted James in his 
hour of need) a woman of great ability, but of overbearing 
disposition. The influence of this imperious and intriguing 
female continued for some years. 

The queen from her youth had looked on the Tories as 
the friends of monarchy, and of the Established Church, to 
which she was zealously devoted. The dexterous policy, 
however, of the late king had weakened the distinctions 
between Whigs and Tories, and put it out of the power of 
zealots on either side to assume pretensions to high principles 
of party. Hence through the influence of his wife, Lord 
Marlborough, a wise and moderate man, found it easy to 
form a party consisting of moderate Whigs and moderate 



ANNE. 261 

Tories, who each sacrificing some little of their principles, 
united on the measures which the queen should pursue on 
foreign policy. Of such men, acting on Marlborough's 
advice, the queen formed her first administration. Lord 
Godolphin was created Lord High Treasurer ; the Marquis of 
Normanby, soon after Duke of Buckingham, was entrusted 
with the Privy Seal ; the Earl of Nottingham and Sir Charles 
Edges were made Secretaries of State ; and several of the 
opponents of the late king were now brought to the council- 
board and received offices of emolument. 

The death of William threw the allies into the utmost con- 
sternation, and occasioned the greatest joy at the court of 
France. But that joy was of short continuance, for Anne had 
scarcely ascended the throne before she declared her resolution 
to carry into execution the provisions of the grand alliance ; 
while the vigor of the ministry in preparing for war, revived 
the spirits of the confederates, and blasted the hopes of Louis 
and the Pretender. The Earl of Marlborough, whose eldest 
daughter was married to Godolphin's son, was appointed 
commander-in-chief of the English army in Flanders, and 
immediately dispatched to Holland as ambassador extraordi- 
nary to the States. The presence of Marlborough revived 
the spirit of the United Provinces, which had been deeply 
depressed by the death of their beloved Prince William, and 
they appointed the English general to the chief command of 
their troops. The allies having provided their several por- 
tions, war was declared against France, on the same day at 
London, the Hague, and Vienna. 

The campaign began in July, 1*702. Marlborough at the 
head of sixty thousand men, obliged the French, under the 
Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Boufflers, to retire before 
him, leaving all the Spanish Guerderland at his discretion. 
The towns of Werk, Venloo, and Ruremond successively 
fell into his hands, and the campaign ended by the capture of 
the town of Liege, in which he found three hundred thousand 
florins. The French, however, commanded by Marshal 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Villars, beat the Imperialists under the Duke of Baden, while 
the Duke of Vendome drove the Prince Eugene before him on 
the Italian side. 

Sir George Rooke, commanding the combined English and 
Dutch fleet, either sunk or captured the Spanish galleons in 
the harbor of Vigo, and the convoy of French vessels under 
whose protection they were. These galleons contained the 
principal resources of the Spanish monarchy ; and by their 
capture, upwards of a million of money, besides ten ships of 
war, fell into the hands of the English. The cowardice of 
Admiral Munden, however, tarnished the glory of the British 
arms before Corunna, and the treachery of some of his officers 
caused the defeat and death of the heroic Admiral Benbow, by 
the French under Du Crasse, off St. Martha in the West Indies. 

On the news of these victories reaching England, both 
Houses of Parliament congratulated her majesty on the suc- 
cess of her arms under Marlborough, who was soon after 
raised to a dukedom ; liberal supplies were voted for carrying 
on the war; and the most vigorous preparations made. 

Marlborough opened the campaign of 1*703, with the siege 
of Bonn, which held out but a short time. Huy and Lim- 
burg surrendered after short sieges. By this campaign, the 
country of Liege, the electorate of Cologne, and the Lower 
Rhine, were prevented acting against England. The allied 
forces in the empire were by no means equally successful. 

In 1704, Marlborough marched with thirteen thousand men, 
to the relief of the Emperor, and formed a junction with a 
body of thirty thousand troops, commanded by Prince Eugene. 
After a variety of movements, these generals encountered the 
French, sixty thousand strong, under Marshal Tallard and 
the Elector of Bavaria, at Blenheim. The allied forces gained 
a complete victory. The French lost in the battle nearly 
half their army. Their camp, baggage, and artillery, fell 
into the hands of the victors. Tallard was taken prisoner, 
and the Elector fled, with the remains of his army, to the 
Rhine, and afterward retreated within the French territory. 



ANNE 263 

In Italy, however, victory declared in favor of Louis ; the 
dominions of the Duke of Modena were seized by the Duke 
of Vendome. Marlborough, on his return to England, was 
received with every possible demonstration of joy ; and the 
gift of the manor of Woodstock, testified the gratitude of the 
nation. The town of Gibraltar surrendered to the naval 
power of England, commanded by Sir George Eooke ; and 
although the value of the conquest was not then appreciated, 
no higher testimony of the services rendered by Rooke to his 
country can be conceived, than that the possession of the 
town has been retained by British arms to the present time. 

Spain also became the field for British valor to reap still 
greater glory ; the Earl of Peterborough, a man of romantic 
bravery, great abilities, and high military genius, but in whose 
mind much that was mean and ridiculous, was singularly 
blended with much that was great and noble, was sent into 
that kingdom to support the pretensions of the Archduke 
Charles. The city of Barcelona was first attacked by this 
general, and with nine thousand soldiers he reduced a city, 
which, in the opinion of the most distinguished of modern 
generals, might be defended against an army of eighty thou- 
sand men. The annals of ancient or modern war do not 
contain a more splendid achievement than the capture of 
Barcelona by Lord Peterborough. The conquest of Valen- 
cia followed; and in time, Charles became master of Arragon, 
Carthagena, Grenada, and Madrid, and was proclaimed king 
of Spain in the capital. 

The victory of the Duke of Marlborough over the army of 
Villeroi at Ramilies in 1106, humbled the pride and power of 
Louis. The French armies became dispirited ; the people 
showed symptoms of discontent ; and Louis abjectly sued for 
peace ; but in vain. The allies, determined to destroy the 
power of the French, carried all before them, and the inhab- 
itants of Paris trembled for the safety of the capital. But the 
spirit of party and faction at home was about to retrieve the 
fortunes of Louis. 



264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SECTION II. 

In the elections for a new Parliament, (1705) the Whigs 
obtained a large majority, which produced a change in the 
cabinet. The administration, a motley mixture of Whigs and 
Tories, had been perpetually at variance ; each party secretly 
caballing to supplant the other. After some unavailing strug- 
gles by the Tories, they were obliged to give way, and Lord 
Cowper was appointed Chancellor, and Lord Sunderland, 
Secretary of State. The Tories being ejected from the min- 
istry, applied themselves with zeal and ardor to the interests 
of the people ; they attributed their loss of power to their 
attachment to the Established Church, thereby hoping to 
work on the well-known feelings of the queen. As a set-off 
to this, the Whigs induced Parliament to pass a most extra- 
ordinary resolution, declaring, that whoever presumed to assert 
the danger of the Church was an enemy to the queen and the 
nation. 

The determination of pursuing the war, in the meantime, 
be^an to grow weaker and weaker, in consequence of a suc- 
cession of misfortunes, and a general inclination for peace 
manifested itself. Lord Peterborough had been recalled from 
Spain, and the command entrusted to the Earl of Galway. 
Under him, the English and Spanish troops were defeated at 
Almanza, (25th of April, lTOT) by the Duke of Berwick, in 
one of the most decisive and disastrous battles on record. 
After this victory, all Spain, except the province of Catalonia, 
acknowledged Philip as their lawful monarch. The allies 
were equally unfortunate in their attack on the important 
naval arsenal of Toulon ; and the English fleet, under Sir 
Cloudesley Shovel, on their return from this expedition, 
were driven by a violent storm on the rocks of Scilly, where 
the admiral's own ship was lost and every person on board 
perished ; three more vessels met with a similar fate, and 
four others were saved with the greatest difficulty. The Duke 



ANNE. 265 

of Savoy and Prince Eugene, however, compelled the French 
and Spanish troops to evacuate Italy. Lombardy and Naples 
were reduced, and Modena and Milan successively surren- 
dered themselves to the allies. Thus, at the termination of 
the campaign of 1706, the situation of Louis appeared despe- 
rate ; and France remained in the utmost distress and con- 
sternation. 

The most remarkable transaction of the year 1707, was 
the union between England and Scotland. Though under 
the government of one sovereign since the time of James I 
of England, yet each nation had continued to be ruled by 
respective legislatures, and frequently pursued opposite 
interests. The union of the two kingdoms had been a 
favorite project of William III, when the cessation of his 
warlike occupations permitted his attention to be called to 
civil policy ; and in his last speech to the English Parlia- 
ment, he recommended the subject to their serious considera- 
tion. The queen's first ministry had acted on this advice, 
and prevailed on the Scotch to send commissioners to Lon- 
don in 1702, to treat about the terms of the union. The 
negotiation, however, was unsuccessful, owing to some com- 
mercial differences. 

As the reign of Anne advanced, the union became indis- 
pensable to the safety of the island. The queen was now 
childless, and the prospect of future issue hopeless. The 
Electress Sophia or her descendants, had been nominated 
successors to the throne of England. But by an act passed 
by the Parliament of Scotland, styled the act of security, that 
assembly was empowered, in case of her majesty dying with- 
out issue, to declare a successor to the crown of Scotland. 
The whigs having a majority in the Commons, and knowing 
the unanimity which prevailed between the two legislative 
assemblies, seized the opportunity to resume the considera- 
tion of this most important subject. English and Scotch 
commissioners were again appointed to arrange preliminaries ; 
the former proposed an incorporation of the two kingdoms, 



266 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

while the latter would only consent to a federal union. A 
majority of the Scotch commissioners being at last gained 
over to support the English proposals, the rest reluctantly 
yielded, excepting Lockhart of Carnwarth, who pertinaciously 
refused to acquiesce in the treaty. The principal articles 
were the following: that the two kingdoms should be united 
under the name of Great Britain : that the succession of the 
united kingdom should remain to the Princess Sophia and 
her heirs, being Protestants ; that the whole people of Britain 
should be represented by one Parliament, in which sixteen 
peers and forty- five commoners chosen for Scotland, should 
sit and vote ; that the subjects of the United Kingdom should 
enjoy free trade and navigation, and a reciprocal communi- 
cation of all other rights, privileges and advantages belonging 
to the subjects of either kingdom. 

The articles of union, thus settled by the commissioners 
were submitted to the Legislature of each kingdom for their 
sanction. The treaty was received with the utmost disap- 
probation in Scotland. The body of the people, either 
swayed by the adherents of the Pretender, or yielding to the 
dictates of their pride, were utterly averse to a measure 
which annihilated them, in their own estimation, as a nation. 
The excitement became general ; the nobility and gentry 
were exasperated at the loss of their influence and credit, 
and the commercial body remonstrated against the proposed 
restrictions, duties, and customs on trade. The most violent 
disputes took place in Parliament. Fletcher of Saltoun, 
Lord Belhaven, and the Duke of Hamilton, eloquently 
inveighed against the measure. Fletcher boldly affirmed in 
Parliament, " that the interest and honor of the nation had 
been betrayed by the commissioners ;" while Lord Belhaven, 
in a speech pregnant with eloquence, which drew tears of 
indignation and anger from his auditors, depictured Caledo- 
nia as sitting in the midst of the Senate, looking indignantly 
around her, and covering herself with her royal robe, attend- 
ing the fatal blow, and breathing out with tender and pas- 



ANNE. 267 

sionate emotion, the exclamation of the noble Roman : " Et 
tu quoque mi fill !" The Duke of Hamilton still more boldly 
exclaimed : " Shall we, in an hour, yield, with a vote, what 
our forefathers maintained for so many ages with the sword ? 
Where are the peers, where the barons, once the bulwark of 
our nation ? Have they left no posterity either to improve 
on their glory, or to defend the rights which they have trans- 
mitted from ancient times ? Shall we yield up the indepen- 
dence of our country to our fears, or, if possible, to meaner 
motives, when we are assured of the support of a whole 
nation, roused to rage by indignity and shame ?" The resent- 
ment of the people out of doors, equalled the violence within 
the walls of Parliament. Whigs, Tories, Jacobites, Pres- 
byterians, and Episcopalians, forgot their differences, and 
coalesced ; and to such a height did national indignation 
rise, that the people formed themselves into regiments, and 
determined to march to Edinburgh and dissolve parliament. 
They were, however, prevented from this violent step by the 
intercession of their favorite, the Duke of Hamilton. 

The advisers of the queen proceeded calmly and seriously 
to effect their object, in the midst of this violence and confusion. 
They conciliated the clergy, by making the Presbyterian disci- 
pline a fundamental article of the union ; the merchants 
were flattered with bright prospects ; and bribery silenced 
those prejudices which reason could not overcome. The 
rage of opposition ceased, and the treaty, with some incon- 
siderable variations, received the solemn sanction of the 
Scotch Parliament. 

The act of union, thus completed on the part of Scotland, 
passed through both houses of the English Parliament almost 
without opposition or debate. The bill having become law, 
the island, on the first of May, 1V0V, took the name of the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain. Never was a measure 
productive of more advantage to a nation, and yet never was 
a measure received by the party served, with such general 
disapprobation. 
12 



268 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

SECTION in. 

Louis, encouraged by the daring spirit of faction, which pre- 
vailed at this period in Scotland, equipped an armament, 
with a view of making a descent in that kingdom : on board 
of which was the Pretender. The whole squadron in effect- 
ing a retreat from an action with the English fleet, com- 
manded by Sir George Byng, were dispersed by a storm, and 
ultimately obliged to find their way back to Dunkirk in a very 
distressed condition. 

A resolution of the peers that no peace could be safe or 
honorable, if Spain and the Indies continued in possession 
of the house of Bourbon, precluded all hopes of tranquility. 
The king of France, emboldened by his slight successes in 
the last campaign, now acted on the offensive. His army 
advanced into Flanders, made themselves masters of Ghent 
and Bruges, and laid siege to the town of Oudenarde. Here, 
however, they were attacked by the combined forces of Marl- 
borough and Eugene ; and in spite of the courage and great 
military skill displayed by the Duke of Vendome, were com- 
pletely defeated ; in fact, night only saved them from utter 
ruin. The allies then beseiged Lisle, which, after an obsti- 
nate resistance, capitulated, and Marshal BoufBers and the 
garrison surrendered. Ghent and Bruges were also recov- 
ered, and, before the expiration of the campaign, the fron- 
tier of France was exposed to the attack of the allies. 
During the summer, the islands of Sardinia and Minorca 
were captured by the English. The Pope was menaced by 
the British admiral with the bombardment of Civita-Vecchia, 
in return for the assistance given by him to the Pretender. 
Rome was only saved by the seasonable interposition of the 
Emperor, and on the pontiff granting the investiture of 
Naples to Charles of Spain. 

The French king, thus reduced to the last extremity, 
scarcely able to defend his own dominions, and dreading the 



ANNE. 269 

effects of popular discontent, again sued for peace ; but the 
demands of the allies were so great, and their proposals so 
humiliating to France, that he was obliged to refuse them ; 
while his people declared themselves ready to make any 
sacrifices, rather than submit to enemies so unreasonable. 
The campaign of 1709, commenced by Marlborough, reduced, 
after a siege of twenty- one days, the town of Tournay. The 
battle of Malplaquet next followed, on the 9th of Septem- 
ber, each army amounting to one hundred and twenty thou- 
sand men. The genius of Marlborough and the valor of his 
troops were irresistible. The French were driven from all 
their positions, completely defeated, and their commander, 
Marshal Villars, dangerously wounded. In this victory, the 
allies lost twenty thousand men more than the French. 

Though the secret inclinations of the queen were in favor 
of the Tories, their opponents were kept in power chiefly by 
the influence of the royal favorite, the Duchess of Marlbo- 
rough, who strongly espoused the Whig party. Intrigues had 
long been forming for overturning the administration. These 
intrigues were conducted by Mr. Secretary Harley, who had 
acquired a great portion of the queen's confidence, by foster- 
ing her affection for the excluded branch of her family and 
increasing her repugnance to the Hanoverian succession ; he 
had secured the support of Mrs. Masham, a new court favor- 
ite, who was gradually supplanting her patron, the Duchess, 
in the affections of the queen. Harley's schemes soon 
became known to Marlborough and Godolphin, and they 
insisted on his dismissal, to which Anne was obliged, most 
reluctantly, to acquiesce. By this act, the Whigs forfeited 
the confidence of the queen, which they had hitherto retained. 

The dismissal of Harley from the royal councils, only 
increased the queen's favor toward him. By the aid of 
Mrs. Masham, he had frequent private consultations with the 
queen, and impressed her with the conviction, that, under the 
Whigs, her majesty was a mere cypher ; all power, influence, 
and patronage, being in the hands of Marlborough and 



270 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Godolphin. Notwithstanding the success of the present war, 
the heavy taxation caused by it damped the ardor of the 
people; while the great concessions offered by Louis for 
peace, led all dispassionate men to consider the grand object 
of the war as now sufficiently attained. 

When the nation was thus gradually becoming discontented 
with the Whig government, the Tories industriously repre- 
sented the Church and monarchy in imminent danger from its 
measures. The pulpit was one of the chief means they took 
to propagate this doctrine ; and a champion appeared in the 
person of Dr. Henry Sacheverell, a clergyman, who being 
appointed to preach before the civic authorities of London in 
-St. Paul's cathedral, on the 5th of November, 1709, delivered 
a political discourse. He advocated the doctrine of unlimited 
passive obedience ; denounced the toleration of Dissenters ; 
declared that the Church was threatened with destruction ; 
that it was deserted by those who had sworn to support it; 
and called on the people to come forward in its defense. 
This harangue was extravagantly extolled by the Tories, and 
circulated by them throughout the kingdom. When the popu- 
lar ferment thus excited, was at its hight, a complaint was 
formally made to the House of Commons of the tendency 
of the sermon. In a moment of irritation, that assembly 
resolved to impeach the preacher at the bar of the House of 
Lords. This resolution was no sooner known than Sacheve- 
rell became the champion and martyr of the Church, and 
the trial was considered, by the ignorant, as the prelude to 
its subversion. 

This celebrated trial commenced in Westminster-hall, on 
the 27th of February, 1710, and was conducted with more 
than ordinary solemnity. The queen herself was present! 
daily. During the three weeks, the time it continued, LonJ 
don was a scene of riot and confusion. The populace daily 
attended their idol from his chambers in the Temple to West- 
minster-hall, and rent the air with acclamations. They were 
animated to such a pitch, that, by way of showing their zeal 



ANNE. 271 

for religion, they pulled down several Dissenting chapels, and 
threatened and insulted those members of the Legislature who 
were opposed to their favorite. The trial proceeded ; the 
managers for the Commons were, Sir John Jekyll, Mr. Eyre, 
Sir Peter King, General Stanhope, Sir Thomas Parker, and 
Mr. Robert Walpole, all decided Whigs. The Doctor was 
defended by Sir Simon Harcourt and Mr. Phipps, assisted by 
three divines. The managers distinguished themselves by 
defending the revolution, which the Doctor had attacked by 
the doctrine of passive obedience ; maintaining that it was a 
case of resistance to supreme power, and asserting the right, 
in cases of great emergencies, to take arms against the law ; 
a matter, perhaps, too delicate, to be discussed in a court of 
justice. The counsel for Sacheverell had recourse, in his 
defense, to an argument, which, though specious, is extremely 
sophistical. They affirmed that resistance to the supreme 
power was utterly ijlegal, but that the supreme power in this 
kingdom was the Legislature, not the king ; and thereby jus- 
tifying the revolution which took effect by the concurrence 
of the Lords and Commons. The Lords, after many warm 
debates, found Sacheverell guilty, and sentenced him. to three 
years' suspension from preaching, and ordered his sermon to 
be burnt by the common hangman ; and, as a fit companion 
to it, the famous decree of the University of Oxford, on the 
occasion of the Rye house plot in 1683, was decreed to the 
flames at the same time. The reason of this slight sentence, 
which the Tories considered a triumph, was, that inasmuch 
as the homilies of the Established Church, which every cler- 
gyman had a right to preach, are much more violent against 
a resistance than Sacheverell was, it would have been impos- 
sible to pass a rigorous sentence. 



272 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SECTION IV. 

While the attention of the British nation was occupied by 
the prosecution of this clergyman, Louis continued to make 
earnest solicitations to the allies for the restoration of public 
tranquility. A serious negotiation for peace was opened at 
Gertruydenberg. Louis now added to his former proposals, 
that he would abandon the cause of his grandson, Philip of 
Spain. The allies, with all the insolence of prosperity, 
insisted that he should guarantee the restitution of the Spanish 
monarchy to the house of Austria, in two months ; a condition 
at once dishonorable and impracticable, too ignominious for 
their fallen enemy to accept, and by no means indispensable 
to their own security. The reasonable proposal of Louis was 
rejected through the influence of Marlborough, who, prompted 
by the suggestions of ambition and profit, opposed all over- 
tures of conciliation. 

Hostilities were resumed, and carried on without much 
advantage on either side. The victories which the allied forces 
in Spain gained at the battles of Almanar and Zaragosa, were 
more than counterbalanced by the surrender of General Stan- 
hope, with five thousand British troops, to the Duke of Ven- 
dome, at Breuhiga, and the total defeat of the confederates 
under the Count de Staremberg, at the battle of Villa Viciosa ; 
events which were decisive of the fate of Spain. The Emperor 
Joseph shortly afterwards dying, Charles succeeded to his 
hereditary kingdoms, and was elected to the Imperial Crown 
of Germany. The important point of the balance of power 
and the security of Europe, was therefore at an end, inasmuch 
as it was as important to avert the union of the Spanish domin- 
ions with those of Austria as with those of France. 

The queen, encouraged by the disposition now universally 
prevalent, and guided by the suggestions of Harley and the 
splendid genius of St. John, determined on a total change of 
the ministry, in favor of the Tories. The Duke of Shrewsbury 



ANNE. 273 

was appointed Chamberlain, in the room of the Marquis of 
Kent ; Lord Dartmouth, Secretary of State, on the dismissal 
of the Earl of Sunderland ; Godolphin received an order to 
break the Lord High Treasurer's staff; the treasury was put 
in commission, and Harley appointed Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer ; while his friend, Mr. Henry St. John, succeeded 
Mr. Boyle as Secretary of State, and the seal of the Lord 
Keeper was entrusted to Sir Simon Harcourt. The Duke of 
Marlborough alone, of all his party, remained in office ; for 
although his removal was determined on, yet his opponents 
were afraid that the temper of the people was not sufficiently 
prepared for the dismissal of so great a,, commander. It was 
thought more prudent to undermine his character than boldly 
dismiss him. 

The hopes of the Pretender (who, although he had preserved 
a secret connection with Godolphin and Marlborough, was 
distrustful of their sincerity) began to revive with the change 
of ministry. Harley, even before his appointment, had entered 
into negotiations for his restoration ; while in St. John, the 
Duke of Buckingham, (President of the Council) and the Duke 
of Ormond, he had still more sincere and zealous friends. 
The Tories, at the time they were thus intriguing with the 
exiled family, made warm professions of attachment to the 
Elector of Hanover. The Whigs, alarmed at the credit given 
to their adversaries in the latter quarter, made great efforts to 
secure the confidence of the electoral family, and succeeded. 
Disdaining all anti-monarchical principles, they convinced 
the elector that the maxims and measures of the Tories pre- 
pared the way for the Pretender to the throne. 

The queen, delighted at having a ministry of her own opin- 
ions, raised Harley to the dignity of Lord High Treasurer, 
and created him Earl of Oxford and Mortimer. St. John was 
likewise called to the House of Lords, by the title of Viscount 
Bolingbroke. Although the new ministry were determined on 
peace, yet the war was at first carried on with unabated vigor. 

In May, 1711, Marlborough appeared, for the last time, 



274 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

at the head of the grand army in Flanders. This campaign, 
although not distinguished by brilliant victories, exhibited the 
most consummate proofs of the Duke's military skill and con- 
duct. The combined forces under his command were on the 
point of entering the French barrier, and would doubtless in 
the next campaign, have marched victorious to Paris, when 
Marlborough was divested of all his civil and military offices. 
The pretext employed to justify this act was, that he had taken 
a bribe of £6,000 a year from a Jew, who had contracted to 
supply the army with bread, a crime certainly worthy of the 
most condign punishment. 

In the meantime, the ministry, secure in the acquiescence 
of the Commons in any negotiations for peace, had, by an 
extraordinary stretch of their prerogative, procured a majority 
in the House of Lords, by the creation of twelve new peers 
devoted to their cause. Prior, better known as a poet than 
a statesman, was sent over with proposals to France ; and 
Mesnager returned with him to London, with full powers to 
treat on the preliminaries. 

In arranging the peace, however, with France, it was neces- 
sary to have the concurrence of all the confederates. To 
effect this purpose, the ministers proposed to the allies that 
conferences should be holden at Utrecht, in January, 1712, 
which was, though on the part of the Dutch most reluctantly, 
agreed to. 

At the Congress of Utrecht, the honor of England was con- 
fided to Robinson, Bishop of Bristol and Lord Privy Seal, 
and the Earl of Strafford. Holland was represented by Buys 
and Vanderdusson. The French ministers present were, the 
Cardinal Polignac, the Marshal d'Uxelles, and Monsieur 
Mesnager. The other powers sent plenipotentiaries with the 
sole object of delaying the negotiations. As England and 
France were the only powers that were seriously inclined for 
peace, it may be supposed that all the other deputies served 
rather to retard than to advance its progress. The other con- 
federates, urged on by the Whigs, made unreasonable demands, 



ANNE. 215 

and by their procrastination, exhausted the patience of the 
ministry, who at last determined (if they found it impossible 
to procure the general consent to a peace) to negotiate a sep- 
arate treaty with France. 

SECTION V. 

In the beginning of August, 1*712, Bolingbroke was sent to 
the court of Versailles, to remove all obstacles to the sepa- 
rate treaty ; he was accompanied by Prior and the Abbe" 
Gualtier, a private agent of France, resident in London 
He was greatly caressed by the French monarch and his 
minister, the Marquis de Torcy. He had two interviews with 
the Pretender, and encouraged his hopes of succession. 

The successes of Villars in Flanders, since the removal 
of Marlborough, frightened the Dutch, and they agreed to 
renew the conferences at Utrecht, which had been interrupted. 
Their example was followed by the other allies, and the res- 
toration of tranquility hastened. Treaties between the 
different parties were signed at Utrecht, on the 31st of March, 
1713, by the plenipotentiaries of England, France, Portu- 
gal, Prussia, Savoy, and the United Provinces ; the emperor 
alone resolving to continue the war. 

By this well-known treaty, it was stipulated that Philip, 
now acknowledged king of Spain, should renounce all right 
to the crown of France ; the union of two such powerful 
kingdoms being declared dangerous to the liberties of Europe. 
It was agreed that the Dukes of Berry and Orleans, the 
next heirs to the French monarchy, after the infant dauphin, 
should renounce their claim to the crown of Spain, in the 
event of their succession to the French throne ; it was stipu- 
lated that the Duke of Savoy should possess the island of 
Sicily, with the title of king. The king of Portugal's terri- 
tories in South America were increased ; Spanish Guelder- 
land, with Neufchatel and Valenquin, and the provinces of 
Orange and Chalons, were given to the king of Prussia, 



276 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

whose dominions were raised from a dukedom to a kingdom. 
The Rhine was declared the boundary of the German empire 
on the side of France. The kingdom of Naples, the Duchy 
of Milan, and the Spanish possessions in Tuscany, were 
ceded to the emperor. The regal title was conferred, with 
the island of Sardinia, on the Elector of Bavaria. Luxem- 
bourg, Namur, and Charleroi were given as a barrier to the 
United Provinces, together with other places. The French 
king acknowledged the title of queen Anne, and the succes- 
sion of the family of Hanover to the British throne ; it was 
agreed to demolish the fortifications of Dunkirk ; and the 
colonies of St. Christopher, Hudson's Bay, Newfoundland, 
and Nova Scotia, ceded to the British crown. It was also 
agreed that Minorca and the fortress of Gibralter should 
remain in possession of Great Britain, and that, to the dis- 
grace of our country, the assiente, or contract for furnishing 
the Spanish colonies in South America with negroes, should 
Delong to the subjects of Great Britain, for thirty years. 
The emperor and the king of Spain, after the lapse of a few 
months, agreed to similar terms. The disputes concerning 
the policy of this treaty and the adequacy or inadequacy of 
these conditions on the part of Great Britain to the success 
and expense of the war, were long and violent ; and even 
down to the present times, are a subject of controversy with 
historical writers. 

The history of the latter portion of this reign consists 
entirely of the intrigues of Whigs and Tories against each 
other ; the correspondence of the former with the heir appar- 
ent, the negotiations of the latter with the Pretender, and 
the quarrels of the ministers among themselves. 

Oxford and Bolingbroke, the principal leaders of the 
administration, had long been at variance, and the dissen- 
sions between them now became open. Oxford having arrived 
at his present position through the crooked mazes of intrigue, 
mistook the cunning, which had guided him, for wisdom, and, 
like all inferior minds, he looked with jealousy and mistrust 



ANNE. 211 

on those around him. Instead of admitting Bolingbroke to 
the rank of a coadjutor, he viewed him with fear and suspi- 
cion, as a rival by whom he dreaded to be eclipsed. Boling- 
broke, finding himself regarded as a competitor, did not hesi- 
tate to become one. The slowness, duplicity, and indecis- 
ion of Oxford were not calculated to preserve the confidence 
of his party ; while the captivating manners, the firmness 
and vigor of Bolingbroke procured him, daily, new friends. 

The disputes between them were long and bitter, and they 
at last became so exasperated against each other, that they 
could not abstain from the most indecent altercation, even 
in the presence of the queen. 

The influence of Bolingbroke ultimately prevailed, and 
Oxford found himself deprived of the treasurer's staff and 
dismissed from office. The ambition of Bolingbroke was 
now about to be gratified, and the prize for which he had so 
earnestly and unscrupulously contended, was within his 
grasp, when the queen, who had long been in a declining 
state of health, fell into a lethargy, in which she remained 
for some days, till a stroke of apoplexy relieved her from 
her troubles on the 1st of August, 1714, in the fiftieth year 
of her age. 

Anne was neither captivating in person nor manners. 
Although she did not excel, she was not deficient in the 
accomplishments of a woman. With the exception of her 
conduct as a daughter, she was exemplary in all the rela- 
tions of private life ; as a friend, a mother, a wife, she 
deserved every praise. Like the rest of her family, she was 
good natured to a degree of weakness. Indolent in her dis- 
position, timid by nature, and devoted to the company of 
favorites ; her partiality for her own family, and her dislike 
of the house of Hanover, were natural. Notwithstanding 
her high theoretical principles of government, her conduct 
was uniformly regulated by the strictest regard to the laws 
and liberties of the kingdom. The Church was the object of 
her most maternal solicitude : she gave up part of the royal 



2*78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

revenues for the augmentation of small livings, which is still 
known as Queen Anne's bounty. The events of her reign 
were many and important, but she can not be called a great 
queen. Amidst the ferment of distracted times, she was per- 
sonally popular, and her subjects loved to style her " the 
good Queen Anne." 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

GEORGE I. 
Born 1660— Began to reign 1714— Died 1 727— Reigned thirteen years. 

The privy council assembled immediately after the death of 
the queen, and the Hanoverian resident, M. Kreyenberg pro- 
duced an instrument, signed by the Elector of Hanover, nom- 
inating several of his adherents to be added to the great 
officers of state, as Lords of the Regency, till the new king's 
arrival. Orders were issued for proclaiming George I King 
of England, Scotland, and Ireland ; and the Earl of Dorset 
was dispatched to Germany to inform the king of his acces- 
sion, and to attend him in his journey to his dominions. 

On the 18th of September, the king landed at Greenwich. 
The chief persons in the kingdom crowded to pay their court. 
The political predilections of the king became soon apparent, 
by his flattering attention to the leading Whigs ; such as 
Marlborough, Sunderland, and Somers. The Tories were 
assured of their approaching fate when they beheld the Duke 
of Ormond refused access to the royal presence, and Oxford 
scarcely admitted to kiss the king's hand. The first act of 
George before leaving Hanover for England, was to forward 



GEORGE I. 



279 



an order for the dismissal of Bolingbroke, and the seizure of 
his papers. 

George I on his accession, was already fifty-four years of 
age, attached to German customs, and ignorant of the English 
language and constitution. His manners were cold and 
reserved, and his address awkward. His aversion to the dig- 
nity of his station, and even to the acclamations of his new 
subjects, disgusted the multitude ; and his want of taste for 
letters or the arts, did not conciliate the learned. His better 
qualities were justice, frugality, and punctuality. His parsi- 
mony overcame his love of military glory, and rendered him 
desirous of peace. So great was his attachment to his native 
dominions, that in studying their interests he forgot those of 
the kingdoms which he had been called to govern. The 
great fault of his public character was unbending obstinacy. 
As a private individual, he has always been esteemed upright, 
honorable, and benevolent. Shortly after his arrival in Eng- 
land, he was heard to say, " My maxim is, never to abandon 
my friends, to do justice to all the world, and to fear no man ;" 
a principle productive of many evils, where a king's friends 
are a faction and not connected with his people. 

The power of the Whigs was now at its hight ; the Duke 
of Marlborough was restored to the command of the army ; 
the Great Seal was confided to Lord Cowper, and the Privy 
Seal to the Marquis of Wharton. Lord Sunderland was 
appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ; Lord Halifax First 
Lord of the Treasury ; Lords Townshend and Stanhope, Sec- 
retaries of State ; and Walpole Pay -master of the Forces, 
and leader in the House of Commons ; and on the retirement 
of Lord Halifax, the Treasury was placed in his hands. 

The Whigs, thus in exclusive possession of the Government, 
adopted measures of great severity toward their opponents. 
The Parliament, which assembled in March, 1715, was com- 
posed almost entirely of Whigs, who were well disposed to 
second the most vindictive measures which could be suggested 
by the ministry. Sir William Wyndham, a member con- 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

spicuous for his parliamentary talent, no less than his zealous 
attachment to the Tory interest, narrowly escaped imprison- 
ment in the Tower by order of the House of Commons, for 
censuring some unconstitutional expressions in the royal 
proclamation convening Parliament. 

The vengeance of the Whigs was not suffered to sleep long. 
The papers of Bolingbroke and Prior having been seized, 
Secretary Stanhope presented to the House of Commons those 
which were deemed of importance, and a committee of Secrecy 
was appointed, of which Walpole was chairman, to examine 
if they afforded any just cause of impeachment. Bolingbroke, 
who had hitherto preserved the appearance of great serenity, 
attending, and even defending, with his usual eloquence, the 
conduct of the queen's last ministry, in the House of Lords, 
aware that he, of all his party, could least expect forbearance 
from the Whigs, now retired to the continent. Some time 
after the appointment of the committee, Shippen, an honest 
and consistent friend of the exiled party, having insinuated 
that, notwithstanding the clamor raised against the late min- 
istry, the investigation would end in smoke, Walpole, in the 
excess of party spirit, declared he wanted words to express 
the villainy of the late Frenchified ministry ; and Stanhope 
wondered that men who were guilty of such enormous crimes 
had still the audacity to appear in the public streets. 

On the 9th of June, Walpole presented the report of the 
committee to the House of Commons; the reading of which 
occupied five hours. By this document, all the measures 
which preceded or facilitated the conclusion of the peace of 
Utrecht were declared highly criminal. The reading was no 
sooner finished, than Walpole boldly asserted, that to vindi- 
cate these measures, was in a manner to participate in the 
guilt; and, without allowing time for reflection, impeached 
Henry, Viscount Bolingbroke, (in that house, whence, on the 
motion of Henry St. John, he himself had been expelled for 
corrupt practices) of high treason. A long silence ensued ; 
and after two timid expressions of dissent, the resolution 



GEORGE I. 281 

against the lately triumphant leader of the House of Com- 
mons, passed without a division. Lord Coningsby, a violent 
partisan of the administration, next stood up and said : " The 
worthy chairman has impeached the hand, but I do impeach 
the head ; he has impeached the clerk, and I the justice ; he 
has impeached the scholar and I the master; I impeach 
Robert Earl of Oxford, and Earl Mortimer, of high treason, 
and other high crimes and misdemeanors !" 

Prior and Mr. Auditor Harley, who negotiated the treaty, 
were also impeached, and, being members of the House, were 
immediately ordered into custody. The Duke of Ormond 
and the Earl of Strafford, two more of queen Anne's minis- 
ters, suffered the like fate, for having recommended what the 
king's speech called " the fatal suspension of arms." When 
the Commons brought their impeachment to the bar of the 
House of Lords, it was moved that Oxford be committed to 
safe custody; that nobleman rose in his place, and in the 
course of an able speech declared, that, although " uncon- 
cerned for the life of an insignificant old man," he would 
vindicate the memory of the late queen, and the measures she 
pursued, with his dying breath. The motion, in spite of the 
certificate of his physician that imprisonment would endanger 
his health, was carried, and he was committed to close con- 
finement in the Tower. On his way thither, Oxford was 
attended by an immense concourse of people, who testified 
their sense of the harshness of his treatment by loud impreca- 
tions on his prosecutors. Ormond, seeing the spirit of revenge 
so strongly predominate in these proceedings, followed Boling- 
broke to the continent ; and both these noblemen, irritated 
by persecution, and destitute of resources, entered into the 
service of the Pretender. The Duke having thus taken his 
part, steadily adhered to him in all the reverses of fortune ; 
but Bolingbroke, as soon as he discovered the incapacity of 
his new master, abandoned his cause, and bitterly repented 
during the remainder of his life, of the imprudence of a step 
taken in a moment of irritation. 



282 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

SECTION II. 

After the flight of the Duke of Ormand, an act of attainder, 
in default of personal appearance, was passed against him 
and Bolingbroke. Their names and armorial bearings were 
erased from the rolls of the peerage, by order of the House 
of Lords. 

These violent measures were productive of serious dissat- 
isfaction throughout the country. Riots and tumults ensued ; 
the mob, inflamed with zeal for the ecclesiastical establish- 
ments, destroyed several Dissenting chapels. The severity 
of the legislative enactments to suppress these disturbances, 
instead of putting down, only increased, the popular discon- 
tents. During this state of things, the partisans of the Pre- 
tender, who were both numerous and powerful, exerted them- 
selves with redoubled vigor and activity, to interest the 
nation generally in his favor. The Tories, perceiving that all 
avenues to royal favor were completely closed against them, 
began to associate with the Jacobites, and conspire for the 
restoration of the Stuarts. 

The Pretender, or, as he is sometimes called, Chevalier de 
St. George, encouraged by repeated invitations from his 
adherents in Scotland, applied to the court of France, to 
assist him in recovering the throne of his ancestors ; but 
Louis XIV, worn out by years and infirmities, unwilling to 
hazard the throne of his infant heir, declined to take any 
part, openly, in the proposed plans ; he supplied him with 
money, and allowed him to prepare an armament at Havre- 
de- Grace, for the invasion of Britain. The vigilance of 
Lord Stair, the British ambassador in France, however, pre- 
vented any serious injury to the cause of his sovereign ; and 
the death of Louis (1st of September, 1715) greatly embar- 
rassed the Pretender's affairs. The Duke of Orleans, 
who was appointed Regent of France during the minor- 
ity of Louis XV, cultivated a good understanding with 



GEORGE I. 283 

Great Britain, and endeavored to defeat the designs of the 
Jacobites. 

Notwithstanding these discouragements, the Jacobites 
determined to attempt a revolution ; and Scotland was fixed 
on as the scene of insurrection. The Earl of Mar, assem- 
bling 300 of his vassals in the Highlands, proclaimed the 
Pretender ; and setting up his standard, assumed the title of 
Lieutenant- General of his majesty's forces. He was soon 
joined by the Marquises of Huntley and Tullibardine, the 
Earls Marechal and Southesk, and all the heads of the 
Jacobite clans. With their assistance, Mar was able in a 
few weeks to collect about 9,000 men, well armed and 
appointed. He took possession of Perth, where he estab- 
lished his head-quarters. The Duke of Argyle was appointed 
commander-in-chief of the king's forces in Scotland, to 
oppose this great and rapid success, and Lord Sutherland was 
sent to raise the clans in those districts from which he derives 
his title. 

The jealousy of government being roused by the precipi- 
tate insurrection of Mar, Lords Lansdowne and Duplist, the 
Earl of Jersey, Sir William Wyndham, and other Jacobite 
leaders, who had agreed to raise the west of England, were 
arrested and placed in close confinement; and Lords Home, 
Kinnoul, and others, were imprisoned in Scotland, on suspi- 
cion of a similar intention in Edinburgh. In Northumber- 
land, however, the Pretender's affairs wore a more favorable 
aspect. Mr. Forster, one of the knights of the shire, with 
the Lords Derwentwater, Widdrington, and others, took up 
arms, and assembled a considerable force. After making an 
unavailing attempt to take Newcastle, they went northwards, 
where they were joined by a body of horse under Lords Carn- 
warth, Wentown, and Kinmair, and other persons of dis- 
tinction. On the banks of the Tweed they formed a junc- 
tion with eighteen hundred Highlanders, commanded by 
Brigadier Macintosh, and thus amounted to a formidable 

body. A council of war was held at Kelso, to deliberate on 
12* 



284 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

their future movements : and it was determined to march 
into Lancashire, where they hoped to be joined by a large 
body of Roman Catholics. In executing this plan, they lost 
half of the Highlanders, who, disgusted at the prospect of 
going into England, dispersed, and returned home. The 
remainder of the insurgents proceeded by way of Jedburgh, 
Penrith, Kendal, and Lancaster, to Preston. But before they 
could receive any considerable accession, or arrange the 
defense of the town, General Willis, with six regiments of 
cavalry and a battalion of infantry, appeared before it ; and 
from his activity, there was no chance of escaping. They 
now resolved to resist, and repulsed the first attack of the 
enemy's force ; but Willis being joined the next day by three 
regiments of dragoons under General Carpenter, the rebels 
were dispirited, and surrendered on condition of being spared 
immediate death. Those officers who had deserted from the 
king's service were shot ; the nobility and gentry were sent 
prisoners to the Tower ; and the common soldiers were com- 
mitted to the jails of Chester and Liverpool. 

The day before the rebellion was thus extinguished in Eng- 
land, the rebels in Scotland received a severe shock from the 
royal troops. The Earl of Mar, after much useless delay at 
Perth, resolved to march into England, to join his southern 
friends. The Duke of Argyle, as soon as he was informed of 
this intention, did not wait the approach of the rebels, but 
advanced to meet them, and encamped within a few miles of 
the Earl of Mar, near the village of Dumblane and SherrifF 
Muir. The Duke, anxious to prove his attachment to the 
present government, resolved to give them battle, though his 
force did not amount to half the number of the enemy. Ac- 
cordingly, on the morning of the 13th of November, 1715, he 
drew up his army, consisting of about three thousand five 
hundred men, in order of battle ; but he soon found his troops 
in danger of being surrounded by the superior numbers of the 
insurgents. The Duke was therefore compelled to alter his 
intention. While this maneuver was performing, the High- 



GEORGE r. 285 

landers on the right of Mar's army, headed by Glengarry 
Clanronald, Maclean, Campbell of Glenlyon, Gordon of 
Glenbuckel, and other chieftains, rushed on the English 
infantry. Their furious and compact charge seemed about to 
overwhelm all resistance, when Clanronald having fallen, his 
clan hesitated ; at this instant Glengarry, throwing his bon- 
net into the air, cried out, " Revenge ! to-day for revenge, 
to-morrow for mourning !" which so animated them, that they 
rushed up to the muzzles of the muskets of their opponents, 
pushed aside the bayonets with their targets, and made great 
havoc with their broad-swords. The left wing of the royal 
army was quickly broken and routed. General Withan, who 
commanded it, fled to Sterling, declaring all was lost. In 
the mean time Argyle, who commanded in person on the right, 
attacked the left wing of Mar's troops, and drove them before 
him for two miles, with great slaughter, as far as the river 
Allen, in crossing which many of them were drowned. He 
then returned to the field of battle, where, to his mortification, 
he found the enemy victorious, and patiently awaiting his 
attack. Instead of renewing the engagement, both armies 
continued for some hours to observe each other, and toward 
evening each drew off, without engaging. Both sides, of 
course, claimed the victory, but Argyle had gained the advan- 
tage. 

The battle of Sherriff Muir proved fatal in its consequences 
to the cause of the Pretender. The castle of Inverness was 
seized by Lord Lovat, the chief of the Frasers, who had hith- 
erto professed himself friendly to the house of Stuart; the 
Marquis of Tullibardine withdrew from the rebel army to 
defend his own country ; and several of the clan, disgusted 
at their ill success, dispersed on the approach of winter. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SECTION III. 



While the Pretender's affairs bore this lowering and gloomy 
aspect, he resolved to try if his personal appearance in Scot- 
land could redeem his cause. He accordingly set sail from 
Dunkirk, and landed at Peterhead about the end of December. 
His companions consisted only of the Marquis of Tynemouth, 
son of the Duke of Berwick, and five other gentlemen. He 
passed through Aberdeen to Fetterose, disguised as a naval 
officer; whither the Earls of Mar and Marechal, and Gen- 
eral Hamilton, hastened to meet their long expected prince. 
They conducted the Pretender, with all the honors of royalty, 
amid the loud and general acclamations of the people, to the 
regal palace of his ancestors at Scone ; where he established 
his residence, and named a regular council. The reduced 
number of his followers greatly mortified the Pretender, while 
his own want of those qualities, for which his euthusiastic 
partizans had given him credit, disgusted his friends. He 
had neither that daring energy, nor that sound judgment, 
indispensable in a leader under such difficulties. 

The Duke of Argyle, having received a reinforcement of 
six thousand Dutch auxiliaries, advanced, notwithstanding 
the severity of the season, toward Perth ; which was immedi- 
ately abandoned by the rebels, who retired along the Carse 
of Gowrie to Dundee, and from thence, being hotly pursued, 
to Montrose. Here the secret advisers of the Chevalier, per- 
ceiving no prospect of a better fortune, pressed him to quit 
the kingdom. For some time he turned a deaf ea to their 
request, and earnestly pleaded to share the fate of his friends. 
Every hardship, he said, every danger, he was most ready to 
endure with those men who had sacrificed every thing for his 
service ; at last, when his friends declared, that it would be 
more easy for his unfortunate followers to obtain terms from 
the government, in his absence, than while he remained with 
them, he consented to retire. The Pretender embarked, on 



GEORGE I. 287 

the evening of the fourth of February, on board a small 
French ship that lay in the harbor of Montrose, accompanied 
by the Earls of Mar and Melford, and Lord Drummond, and 
in five days they were landed at Gravelines. The rest of the 
rebel force, left under the command of General Gordon, retired 
by a march so rapid as to elude pursuit, to Aberdeen, where 
several of the officers embarked for France. From Aberdeen, 
the Highlanders retreated up Strathspey to the mountains of 
Badenoch and Lochabar ; and before the English could come 
up to them, the common men retired to their homes ; while 
the chiefs, for the most part, took boats in Caithness, escaped 
to the Orkneys, and afterward to the continent. Argyle, 
whose wish to spare the rebels, laid him open to the accusa- 
tion of want of zeal, was recalled by the government, and 
soon after deprived of all his honors. 

This rebellion, which was badly planned, and had been 
conducted without energy or judgment, being thus ended, the 
law was put in force in all its rigor. Parliament having met 
on the fifth of January, the Commons immediately impeached 
Lords Derwentwater, Widdrington, Nithsdale, Wintoun, 
Carnwarth, Kenmuir, and Nairn, of high treason. They all, 
except Lord Wintoun, pleaded guilty, and having received 
sentence of death, implored mercy at the hands of George. 
No entreaties could prevail on the ministry, who were urged 
on by Walpole, to spare these unhappy men. The House of 
Lords even presented an address to the king for a reprieve to 
such of the condemned lords as should deserve his mercy, 
and were by him haughtily answered, that he would do what 
he thought most consistent with the dignity of his crown and 
the safety of his people. Orders were immediately issued for 
the execution of the Lords Derwentwater, Nithsdale, and 
Kenmuir ; the rest were respited. Nithsdale, however, had 
the good fortune to escape in women's clothes on the eve of 
the day fixed for his execution ; Derwentwater and Kenmuir 
were beheaded on Tower-hill, and both died glorying in the 
acts for which they suffered. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



The severity of the ministry disgusted the nation, particu- 
larly those districts which had been the scene of the rebellion. 
Not satisfied with the blood already shed, the government 
resolved to proceed against the prisoners taken at Preston. 
Apprehensive, however, that juries in Cheshire and Lanca- 
shire would not assist them by their verdicts, an act was 
passed for trying the private persons in London. This enact- 
ment has ever been considered a gross breach of the consti- 
tution, which had invariably held that every person should 
be tried in the place where the offense h#d been committed. 
Under this law, many of the more ordinary offenders were 
tried and fell victims to the delusion of those mistaken prin- 
ciples which led them to engage in this revolt. Upwards of 
thirty prisoners were executed, while above one thousand 
submitted to the king's mercy, and were transported to the 
plantations. Lord Wintoun and Mr. Foster, however, were 
lucky enough to escape from their respective prisons, and 
reach the continent in safety. 

Lord Oxford, having continued a prisoner in the Tower for 
upward of two years, now petitioned to be brought to trial. 
A day was accordingly appointed by the House of Peers, 
and the Commons were ordered to prepare their charge. On 
the trial coming on in Westminster-hall, a dispute arose 
between the Lords and the Commons as to the mode of pro- 
cedure ; and the Lower House refusing to give way, the Lords 
voted that the prisoner should be set at liberty. However 
culpable the conduct of Oxford, as a minister, might have 
been, it can not be denied that the charges brought against 
him did not amount to high treason. 

Although the rebellion was extinguished, the spirit which 
had fanned the flame was far from having subsided. The 
ministry perceiving and resenting the general discontent and 
disaffection of the people, and fearing that a majority of 
Tories would be returned to the Commons at the general 
election about to take place, introduced a measure into 
Parliament, which was passed, called the Septenial Act, 



GEORGE I. 289 

extending the duration of Parliament from three to seven 
years. 

Domestic affairs being thus adjusted, the king turned his 
attention to foreign policy. About this time, the northern 
states of Europe began to take a more elevated position 
among the powers of the continent. This had been imme- 
diately effected by the military glory of Peter, the Czar of 
Russia, and Charles XII of Sweden, two princes, both of 
equal energies and equally inflexible in their purpose, with 
this important distinction, however, that in the former, this 
purpose was linked with reason, in the latter, with passion. 
An attempt of Peter to extend the Russian territories to the 
Baltic (which was only to be obtained at the expense of 
Sweden) gave rise to the twenty years' contest, which was to 
give a new aspect to the affairs of the north of Europe. The 
Danes, Norwegians, Saxons, and Prussians, joined the Rus- 
sians to punish their common enemy Charles, who having 
been defeated at the decisive' battle of Pultawa, fled into 
Turkey, and resided for some time at Bender, the wonder of 
Europe. During his absence, the English monarch entered 
into a confederacy with the Russians and Danes, and pur- 
chased from Frederick IV, King of Denmark, the rich Dis- 
tricts of Bremen and Verden, which had been taken from 
Sweden. Charles, highly provoked at this conduct, and still 
more so at the appearance of a British squadron in the Baltic, 
entered into a correspondence with the English Jacobites ; 
and a scheme was formed for landing Swedish troops, with 
the king at their head, in some part of the island. Count 
Gyllenburg, the Swedish minister in London, was particularly 
active in this affair ; but having been seized with all his 
papers, the confederacy was for the time broken up. In 
order more effectually to secure his German dominions, George 
entered into a new treaty with the Dutch and the Regent of 
France by which they mutually agreed to assist each other, 
in case of an invasion of their respective dominions. 



290 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SECTION IV. 

The seizure of Sardinia by Spain, which island, by the treaty 
of Utrecht, had been ceded to the House of Austria, paved 
the way to the most important of the many treaties for which 
this reign is remarkable : namely, the Quadruple Alliance. 
By this alliance between the Emperor, France, Holland, and 
Britain, it was agreed that Sardinia should be exchanged by 
the Emperor with the Duke of Savoy, for Sicily, and that the 
succession to the Duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Placen- 
tia, claimed by the Queen of Spain, should devolve on his 
eldest son, in case the present possessor should die without 
a son. Spain, however, was little disposed to acquiesce in 
this arrangement, in which her present interests were so com- 
pletely disregarded. War between Austria and Spain now 
became inevitable, and George, after having offered to act as 
mediator without success, resolved to support his ally. A 
Spanish war was resolved on, and a squadron of twenty-two 
ships, commanded by Sir George Byng, was sent, with all 
expedition, to relieve Naples, which was threatened by a 
Spanish army. Byng came in sight of a Spanish fleet, con- 
sisting of twenty-seven sail of the line, off the coast of Cala- 
bria, (11th of August, 1*718) and soon brought them to close 
action ; which, before sunset, terminated in the almost total 
destruction of the Spanish fleet. 

Cardinal Alberoni, Prime Minister of the King of Spain, 
a man of lofty but turbulent genius, seized on this rupture, to 
attempt the acquisition of a powerful ally to his master, by 
placing the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. For 
this purpose, a fleet, having on board six thousand regular 
troops, with arms for twelve thousand more, was dispatched, 
under the command of the Duke of Ormond, to invade Eng- 
land. The weather, however, fortunately frustrated the 
attempt; the fleet was disabled by a storm off Cape Finisterre, 



GEORGE I. 291 

and the expedition completely failed. The ambitious and 
violent projects of the enterprising Alberoni at last disgusted 
Philip of Spain, and he was dismissed with ignominy. Philip, 
shortly after (a. n. 1720) acceded to the terms prescribed 
by the framers of the Quadruple Alliance, and peace was 
again restored. 

While Alberoni, who raised himself from being the son of 
a peasant to the highest offices of state, was thus attempting 
to alter the political state of Europe, a great change was 
effected in commercial affairs. From the revolution of 1688, 
the national debt had gone on yearly increasing, owing either 
to the insufficiency of the supplies granted by Parliament, or 
the mal-administration of the public finances. The loans to 
government were chiefly made by corporate bodies, or compa- 
nies of wealthy merchants ; who, besides the stipulated 
interest, were allowed commercial advantages. Among the 
other creditors of government, was the company trading to the 
South Seas; who had advanced, in 1*716, nineteen millions 
sterling. For this sum, interest, at the rate of six per cent, 
was paid, and the infamous Assiente contract for supplying 
South America with negroes, vested in the British Crown by 
the treaty of Utrecht, was assigned to them. 

The transactions of the South Sea Company with govern- 
ment became very profitable to the members ; and Sir John 
Blount, one of the directors, encouraged by this, and by a 
spirit of avaricious enterprise, proposed to the ministry, in the 
name of the Company, to buy up all the debts due to other 
companies, and so constitute the South Sea Company the 
sole public creditor. By this means, it was asserted that 
government would be enabled to pay off the national debt, 
by lowering the interest. A scheme, apparently so advan- 
tageous to the state, was readily adopted, and received the 
sanction of Parliament. As the directors could not be sup- 
posed to have money sufficient for so great an undertaking, 
they were empowered to raise it by opening a subscription, 
and granting annuities to such public creditors as should 
13 



292 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

exchange the security of the Crown for that of the South Sea 
Company, with the profits which might result from commer- 
cial enterprises. 

The most artful and insidious methods were put in practice, 
to delude the public with the idea of the vast emoluments to 
be derived from the commercial intercourse which, it was pre- 
tended, would (with the consent of Spain, which was to be 
procured by the cession of Gibraltar and Minorca) be estab- 
lished with the empires of Mexico and Peru. The subscrip- 
tion books filled with amazing rapidity ; all classes of society 
hastened to insert their names and part with their money ; 
ministers of state, peeresses, ladies of fashion, philosophers, 
legislators, merchants, shop-keepers, and mechanics, all 
crowded together in the offices of the South Sea Company, in 
search of high interest for their capital. The court of directors 
declaring a dividend of thirty per cent, for 1*720, and fifty 
per cent, for no less than twelve years after : the Company's 
stock rose in price, from £130 per share to £1,000, in a very 
short space of time. New projectors started up to profit by 
the credulity of individuals ; no scheme, however wild, but 
found supporters ; no delusion, however gross, but was eagerly 
credited. 

Sober-minded persons at last began to doubt the realization 
of the splendid harvest; and it was discovered, that the pro- 
jectors of the South Sea scheme, and those who were thought 
to be in the secret, had disposed of all their stock while the 
tide was at the highest. Universal alarm spread ; the stock 
fell with greater rapidity than it had risen, the nation awoke 
from its dreams of golden prosperity, and found itself reduced 
to a state of the most deplorable distress and ruin. 

A committee of the House of Commons was appointed to 
investigate the subject, when it was discovered, that before 
any subscription had been made, a fictitious stock of £574,- 
000 had been disposed of by the directors, in order to facili- 
tate the passing of the act for the establishment of the company, 
and that this scandalous abuse of public confidence had 



GEORGE I. 293 

received the encouragement of the ministers. Lord Sunder- 
land and Mr. Aislabie were compelled to resign ; the latter 
was also expelled the House and committed to the Tower. 
Mr. Secretary Craggs, by death, escaped a similar fate. 
The directors were removed from their seats in Parliament 
and the places they held under government ; and the principal 
delinquents were compelled to disgorge all the plunder they 
had acquired during the popular frenzy. Parliament having 
thus punished the chief promoters of this iniquitous scheme, 
proceeded to afford some relief to the sufferers. Out of the 
profits arising from the South Sea scheme, the sum of seven 
millions was restored to the original proprietors ; and other 
measures were adopted to alleviate public distress. By these 
wise and equitable regulations public credit was restored, and 
the anxiety of the nation by degrees subsided. A new 
administration was also formed, of which Lord Townshend 
and Walpole (now created Knight of the Garter) were the 
heads. 

The English Jacobites took advantage of the discontents 
and disorders produced by the South Sea scheme, and formed 
a conspiracy in favor of the Pretender. This combination, 
however, was soon discovered, and the principal malcontents 
arrested and punished. Dr. Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, 
a man of learning and distinguished talent, was the most cel- 
ebrated of the conspirators. He was degraded, deprived of 
his see, and banished for life by act of Parliament. The 
bishop retired to France, where he spent the remainder of his 
life in the service of the Pretender. It is a remarkable coin- 
cidence, that the bishop, on his route to exile, met his friend 
Bolingbroke, whom the king had pardoned, returning to his 
native country. 

The attention of the nation was soon diverted from these 
affairs by the renewal of the war with Spain, caused by the 
intrigues of the Spanish king with Austria. This war was 
happily of short continuance, and was productive of neither 
profit nor glory to either country. France offered her media- 



294 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

tion, and peace was concluded, but the hostile disposition of 
both nations continued. 

A fair prospect of peace and tranquility now seemed to 
open ; and the king embraced with his usual eagerness this 
favorable opportunity of revisiting his electoral dominions, 
to which he ever retained a fond attachment. He embarked 
at Greenwich, third June, 1727, and having landed in Hol- 
land, immediately set out on his journey to Hanover. On 
the road between Delden and Osnaburg, he was seized with 
a lethargic paralysis ; and on arriving at the palace of his 
brother, the Bishop of Osnaburg, he was found incapable of 
proceeding further ; and on Sunday the 11th of June, expired, 
in the sixty-eighth year of his age, leaving George his succes- 
sor, and a daughter, married, previous to the accession of the 
Brunswick family, to Frederick William, King of Prussia, 
and mother of the reigning sovereign, Frederick the Great. 

George, from the nature of his situation, was compelled to 
throw himself under the protection of a party, and, from his 
ignorance of the English constitution and language, obliged 
to acquiesce in measures hostile to the best interests of the 
nation. Although a lover of peace, he maintained the honor 
and reputation of England among foreign powers. Perhaps 
the most valuable trait in his character, was his sincere 
attachment to religious freedom, and detestation of sectarian 
intolerance. 



GEORGE II. 295 



CHAPTER XXXV . 

GEORGE II. 

Born 1683— Began to reign 1727— Died 1760— Reigned 33 years. 

The death of George I, and the accession of his son, excited 
the hopes of the party now out of power, and a change of 
ministry was generally anticipated ; but public expectation 
was disappointed, as the government continued in the hands 
of the Whigs. The national debt had now increased to fifty 
millions. 

Sir Robert Walpole and Lord Townshend still continued 
to have the management of the administration. To the for 
mer was assigned the internal government of Great Britain 
while the latter conducted the foreign affairs of the country 
Walpole was a man of extraordinary talents, who, by indus 
try and uncommon facilities for business and debate, had 
from a comparatively humble station, raised himself to the 
head of the Treasury. Corruption disgraced his internal 
government, and* timidity distinguished his foreign affairs. 
To the administration of Walpole there existed a powerful 
opposition, consisting of those Whigs who were either disap- 
pointed at not obtaining public employment, or who per- 
sonally disliked the minister ; the Tories who had enjoyed 
office under Queen Anne ; and the Jacobites. William and 
Daniel Pulteney, Sir J. Barnard, Sir W. Wyndham, and 
Shippen, were the heads of the opposition in the Commons; 
all men of commanding abilities, and most of them endowed 
with powers of surpassing eloquence. 

The first years of this reign Ave re chiefly occupied in 
debates on the subject of the national debt, and the number 
of forces to be kept in pay. The opposition were incessant 
in their demands, that the nation, which had so long suffered 



296 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the hardships of war, should now enjoy the blessings of 
peace ; while the administration was equally persevering in 
soliciting fresh supplies from Parliament, either for the pur- 
pose of acquiring friends on the continent, or of guarding 
the kingdom from internal commotions. 

For several years, numerous petitions had been presented 
to both Houses of Parliament, from merchants, complaining 
of depredations committed by the Spaniards on the British 
commerce in the West Indies, where vessels were plundered 
with perfect impunity, and the crews treated with the greatest 
barbarity. The body of the people called loudly for ven- 
geance, and the leaders of the opposition employed all their 
eloquence against the minister, who had tamely seen his 
country exposed to such indignities. The Commons, at last, 
entered into an investigation of the subject ; and the minis- 
ter demanded satisfaction for these outrages. Negotiations 
were set on foot with the Court of Spain, and a treaty of 
peace was signed at Seville on the 29th of November, 1729, 
by the ministers of Britain, France, and Spain : it was 
agreed to compensate the merchants for the losses they had 
suffered. The emperor, conceiving that this treaty was hos- 
tile to his interests, prohibited the subjects of Great Britain 
from trading in his dominions, and began to make prepara- 
tions for war. After a delay of two years, however, he 
acceded to the treaty of Seville, and signed it at Vienna, 
in 1731. 

In the session of 1730 a bill was introduced to prevent all 
British subjects from advancing money to foreign powers, 
without having first obtained permission from the king. This 
proposition was opposed by Sir J. Barnard, one of the repre- 
sentatives of London, a man of strict integrity and extensive 
commercial knowledge, as a measure which would render 
Holland the mart of money to the nations of the continent. 
Notwithstanding this opposition, the bill became law. In 
the ensuing session of Parliament, the course of justice was 
rendered more simple and expeditious, by a law which 



GEORGE II. 297 

enacted, that in legal processes and pleadings, the English 
language should be substituted for the Latin, which had been 
hitherto used. 

The death of the Duke of Parma, without issue, had nearly 
disturbed that general tranquility which the late treaty with 
the Emperor had established. The Duchies of Parma and 
Placentia had, by the treaty of Seville, (in which the House 
of Austria subsequently acquiesced) been assigned to Don 
Carlos, son of the King of Spain, in the event of the reigning 
Duke dying without an heir. No sooner, however, had the 
Duke resigned his breath, than the Imperial forces marched 
into Parma. England remonstrated against this breach of 
faith ; the Emperor consented to preserve peace by recalling 
his troops ; and the new Duke soon afterward took possession 
of his dominions. 

About this time, (1731) the attention of the House of 
Commons was occupied by a subject strongly illustrating the 
degeneracy of the times. During the reign of Queen Anne, a 
company called the Charitable Corporation, had been incor- 
porated, which professed to lend money at legal interest to 
the poor, on small pledges, and to persons of higher rank, on 
proper security. Their capital was at first limited to £30,000, 
but was afterward augmented to £600,000. The management 
was entrusted to directors ; George Robinson, member for 
Marlow, was cashier ; and having a commission of bank- 
ruptcy issued against him, he disappeared, as did Thompson, 
the warehouse-keeper. It was soon discovered that a most 
pernicious system of injustice had been carried on : £30,000 
were all that could be discovered to answer for the capital of 
£600,000. The members of the Company, in a petition to 
the House of Commons, represented the manner in which 
they had been defrauded, and the distress to which many of 
them had been consequently reduced. A committee of secrecy 
was appointed to make inquiries, and a most iniquitous scene 
of fraud was discovered, which had been carried on by Robin- 
son and Thompson, in concert with some of the directors. 



298 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Persons of the highest rank, including a member of the Privy 
Council, were implicated in this nefarious transaction. Six 
members of Parliament were expelled for most disgraceful 
acts : Sir R. Sutton, Sir A. Grant, and Robinson, for frauds 
in the management of the Charitable Corporation ; Dennis, 
Bond, and Serjeant Birch, for a fraudulent sale of the unfor- 
tunate Earl of Derwentwater's estates ; and John Ward, for 
forgery. The several contracts for the sale of Lord Derwent- 
waters estates were declared void ; and these extensive posses- 
sions now form the principal support of the splendid retreat 
for disabled seamen, Greenwich Hospital. 

SECTION II. 

A. D. 1733. — The violence of party spirit increased rather 
than diminished during this reign. In 1716 an act had been 
passed for the establishment of a fund for applying the surplus 
of the revenues to the liquidation of the national debt, called, 
in subsequent acts, the jinking fund. From 1717 to 1728, 
this fund had been kept inviolate, and the yearly amount had 
risen to £1,200,000. Walpole. alarmed at the dissatisfaction 
of the people under taxation, had, on several occasions, 
charged it with the interest of his loans, and now meditated 
a formal attack on it. Not wishing to increase his unpopu- 
larity by fresh burdens on the nation, Walpole proposed to 
apply half a million, to be taken out of the sinking fund, to 
the service of the ensuing year. This direct attack, in a time 
of profound peace, on a fund looked on as sacred to the pur- 
poses for which it was originally established, produced a most 
animated and indignant remonstrance from the opposition, 
who cautioned the minister as to the course he was pursuing, 
and demonstrated the folly of sacrificing the advantages arising 
from the progressive operation of this fund, to secure tempo- 
rary ease. Unanswerable arguments did not affect the decis- 
ion of the House of Commons; and though in the House of 
Lords the scheme was again attacked, with the united powers 



GEORGE II. 299 

of argument, wit, and eloquence, by Lords Bathhurst, Carteret, 
and Chesterfield, it finally received the royal assent. 

The Spaniards, since the treaty of Seville, had continued 
their aggressions on British commerce ; while the British mer- 
chants carried on an illicit trade with their colonies. As the 
right of cutting logwood in Campeachy Bay, legally claimed 
by the British, gave them opportunities of introducing contra- 
band commodities into the continent of South America, the 
Spaniards resolved to put a stop to the evil, by refusing per- 
mission to cut logwood in that place. The Spanish vessels, 
under pretense of preventing the traffic, exercised great sever- 
ities. British cargoes were improperly confiscated, crews 
imprisoned, and many subjects of England sent to the mines 
of Pot03i. Walpole, compelled by the general indignation 
to notice this conduct, endeavored, by negotiation, to obtain 
satisfaction from the Court of Madrid. The preliminaries of 
a convention were accordingly signed in the beginning of the 
year 1*739, by which it was provided that the King of Spain 
should pay to the subjects of Great Britain £95,000 sterling, 
as an indemnification for their losses. When the terms of 
this convention were communicated to Parliament, it was 
found, to the astonishment of the nation, that no provision 
was made against future acts of violence ; the right of the 
Spaniards to search British vessels navigating the American 
seas not having been decided. The neglect of the King of 
Spain to pay the stipulated sum at the appointed time, con- 
vinced the nation of his want of faith. The people, with one 
voice, demanded satisfaction ; and the minister was obliged 
to abandon his policy, and war was accordingly declared ; 
and soon after, Admiral Vernon, a gallant seaman, with only 
six ships, destroyed all the fortifications of Porto Bello, the 
great refuge of the Spanish guard ships, and came away vic- 
torious, with scarcely the loss of a man. 

Universal joy spread through the nation, in consequence of 
the success of Vernon ; the House of Commons voted 28,000 
troops ; and the ministry, in a dilatory spirit, slowly prepared 



300 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

a grand expedition for the utter destruction of the Spanish 
settlements in America. With this view, a squadron com- 
manded by Commodore Anson, was dispatched to the South 
Seas, to ravage the coasts of Peru and Chili ; while twenty- 
seven sail of the line, besides small craft, with ten thousand 
land forces, were sent to the West Indies, under Sir Chaloner 
Ogle, to reinforce Vernon, and cooperate with Anson. 

Ogle arrived off Jamaica in the beginning of January, 
1741, and placed himself under the orders of Vernon. The 
death of Lord Calhcart, who commanded the troops, gave 
a check to the expedition, and introduced dissension among 
the chiefs, and jealousies between the soldiers and sailors. 
With this formidable armament, it was resolved to attack 
Carthagena, an opulent city, strongly provided with the 
means of defense both by nature and art. The attempt, 
however, proved unsuccessful. Ignorance, rashness, and 
dissension, characterized all the operations. Six hundred 
of the flower of the English army were sacrificed, in attempt- 
ing to make a breach in the fort of St. Lazarus. The expe- 
dition, after sustaining immense loss, as well from the ill- 
concerted attacks made on the town and its adjoining forts, 
as from tropical diseases, were compelled to make a precipi- 
tate retreat, and ultimately returned home, after having lost 
fifteen thousand men, without effecting any thing of conse- 
quence. 

The expedition under Anson was more fortunate : he took 
a considerable number of prizes off the coasts of Chili and 
Peru. Landing with a detachment of seamen and marines, 
he plundered the town of Paita, and would have extended 
his success to the city of Lima, but his force was too incon- 
siderable to attempt any permanent conquest. In crossing 
the Pacific Ocean, he captured a Spanish galleon of 
immense value ; and returned by the Cape of Good Hope 
to England, (15th of June, 1*744) after an absence of nearly 
four years, in which he completely circumnavigated the globe, 
took treasure to the amount of £400,000, and destroyed 



GEORGE II. 301 

property to the value of £600,000. He was received with 
the universal acclamations of the nation. 

The Emperor Charles VI, for the purpose of preserving 
his dominions from the evils of a disputed succession, by 
which he himself had suffered so much, had declared by a 
" pragmatic sanction," that if he should leave sons, or, in 
default of male heirs, daughters, at his decease, the heredi- 
tary dominions and crowns of the house of Austria should 
remain united. Family privileges gave to Charles the power 
of making this regulation, which ultimately obtained the 
consent of Great Britain, France, Holland, and Prussia. 
Charles died in 1740 ; and by virtue of the " pragmatic sanc- 
tion," the succession to all the Austrian dominions belonged 
to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, wife of Francis, Grand 
Duke of Tuscany. Frederick II, King of Prussia, notwith- 
standing he had guaranteed the indivisibility of her dominions, 
immediately on the demise of Charles, revived an antiquated 
family-claim to Silesia, and took, at the head of thirty thou- 
sand men, possession of that province. The French mon- 
arch, equally regardless of his faith, procured the election 
of the Elector of Bavaria to the Imperial throne of Germany, 
as Charles VII. The elector also laid claim to some parts 
of the hereditary dominions of Maria Theresa, now called 
the Queen of Hungary; Upper Austria acknowledged his 
pretensions, and Bohemia was seized by the Bavarian forces, 
supported by France. The English nation remembering 
their intimate connection with the house of Austria, and fear- 
ing the dangerous designs of France warmly espoused the 
cause of the Queen of Hungary; and the king was ready to 
acquiesce in any measure likely to increase his importance 
in Germany. Great Britain prepared for war in the cause of 
Maria Theresa ; and Europe was once more thrown into con- 
fusion by the tyrannical schemes of Prussia, and the ambition 
of Fr?nce. Thus the queen, Great Britain, Russia, and Sar- 
dinia, were arranged on one side ; and France, Prussia, 
Bavaria, Spain, and Sweden, on the other. 



802 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Soon after the breaking out of the war, the leading Jacob- 
ites held a meeting at Edinburgh, where they entered into a 
plan for the restoration of the Stuart Family. During the 
progress of the French invasion of England in 1744, Prince 
Charles Edward, the son of the old Pretender to the British 
Crown, appeared in Paris to take advantage of it, if success- 
ful. When the expedition was given up, Charles retired to 
Gravelines, where, impelled by his hereditary ardor, he began 
to talk of going to Scotland alone, which intention was at 
first discountenanced by his friends. The news of the disas- 
trous battle of Fontenoy once more renewed the machina- 
tions of the Jacobites, and the King of France, in order to 
procure the recall of the British troops from Flanders, 
encouraged the young Pretender, by flattering promises, to 
attempt a descent in the north of Scotland. Charles, natur- 
ally ardent and confident, thus encouraged, hired a frigate of 
eighteen guns, in which he embarked, carrying with him nine 
hundred stand of arms, and about £4,000. With this slen- 
der provision, he sailed on the 14th of July, 1745, from Port 
Lagare in Brittany, attended only by the Marquis of Tulli- 
bardine, Sir John McDonald, Mr. Thomas Sheridan, Mr. 
Sullivan, his governor, and a few other adventurers. His 
frigate was escorted by an old French ship of war, which 
carried about one hundred volunteers, and arms for three 
thousand men. Directing their course toward Scotland, the 
two ships were met by an English man-of-war, which imme- 
diately engaged the French vessel ; and after an obstinate 
conflict of six hours, so crippled her, that she with difficulty 
effected her return to Brest. Charles, however, undismayed, 
pursued his voyage, and landed in safety on the coast of 
Lochaber. He was there joined by Cameron of Lochiel, 
and some other Highland chiefs; his enterprise appeared so 
desperate, that even his warmest adherents endeavored to 
persuade him from proceeding; but they at length became 
inspired with a portion of his enthusiasm, and bound them- 
selves to support to the last, a prince who had thrown him- 



GEORGE II. 303 

self on their generosity. In the course of a few days, he 
numbered nine hundred followers ; with this little band he 
approached the mountain chain of the Grampians, daily 
receiving new accessions of Highlanders; and on the 19th of 
August, finally raised the standard of rebellion at Glenfinnin, 
near Fort Augustus. Several skirmishes took place between 
his friends and the royal forces, in one of which two compa- 
nies of the royal Scots were captured, and presented to their 
prince, as an earnest of future success. Charles' open and 
engaging manners, and his assuming the military dress of the 
Highlanders, which added grace to his tall and handsome 
figure, aroused-the hereditary attachmeut of the hardy moun- 
taineers to his family, and he soon found himself at the head 
of some thousands of followers, consisting chiefly of the 
clans, of which Lochiel, Glenco, Glengarry, Keppoch, and 
Clanronald, were chiefs ; all of them ready to shed the last 
drop of their blood in his cause. 

The ministry at first could scarcely be induced to credit 
the story of the young Pretender's arrival ; but when it could 
no longer be doubted, they issued a proclamation, offering a 
reward of £30,000 for the person of Charles ; recalled the 
Duke of Cumberland and several regiments from Flanders, 
and ordered Sir John Cope, the commander-in-chief in Scot- 
land, with a small body of forces to oppose his progress. A 
favorable opportunity offered for checking the rebejs at Cor» 
ricorrack ; but Cope, devoid of energy, and unfit for command, 
turned toward Inverness, leaving the road to the Lowlands 
open. 

The prince pursued his march to Edinburg, which was now 
unprotected. Having arrived at Perth, which he did, it is 
said, with only a guinea in his pocket, he proclaimed his 
father, James III, King of Great Britain, and published a 
commission, appointing himself regent of the kingdom. He 
was now joined by the Duke of Perth, Lord Nairn, and Lord 
George Murray, brother to the Duke of Athol. So great was 
Charles' confidence in the abilities of Lord George Murray, 



304 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

that he immediately appointed him Lieutenant-general of hi? 
forces ; a trust for which he soon proved himself admirably 
qualified. From Perth, the rebels advanced to the capital, 
where, all resistance being found impossible, the young cheva- 
lier was conducted to the royal palace of his ancestors, Holy- 
rood House, amid the acclamations of an immense concourse 
of people, partly attracted by curiosity, and partly by attach- 
ment for their ancient race of sovereigns. 

In the meantime, transports had been sent from Leith, to 
bring back Cope from his unfortunate expedition to the North. 
He and his army arrived at Dunbar on the same day the prince 
entered Edinburgh. On the 20th, Cope's forces, amounting 
to two thousand one hundred men, approached within a short 
distance. The rebels encamped at Duddingsfield, a village 
near Edinburgh, on the side of Holyrood. On the same night, 
the royal forces lay at Preston Pans, having the village of 
Tranent in their front, and the sea in their rear. Early on 
the morning of the 21st, the young Pretender advanced in 
hostile array, at the head of three thousand undisciplined and 
half-armed Highlanders. From the darkness of the morning, 
Cope mistook, for trees, the first line of rebels, when within 
two hundred paces of the royal army. Lord George Murray 
who was at the head, did not give the English time to recover 
from their surprise when the mistake was discovered. Scarcely 
had they time to form in order of battle, when the High- 
landers rushed on, and the whole line was broken in a few 
seconds. The royal cavalry attempted to charge the rebels, 
who, without regarding the riders, wounded the horses. The 
animals, smarting with pain, wheeled round, the cavalry was 
thrown into confusion, and fled from the field. The High- 
landers pursuing their advantage, fell on the infantry, and a 
total rout of the king's troops ensued. Five hundred of the 
infantry were killed, and a thousand made prisoners. Among 
the former, was the gallant Colonel Gardner, who fell cov- 
ered with wounds, bravely fighting when deserted by his regi- 
ment. The military chest, canons, colors, camp equipage, 



GEORGE II. 305 

and the baggage of the royal army, fell into the hands of the 
rebels, of whom thirty-four only were killed, and seventy 
wounded. Charles bore his good fortune with moderation, 
and had he marched directly to England, the contest between 
him and the House of Hanover, might have terminated to his 
advantage. He returned to Edinburgh, and wantonly wasted 
his time in the metropolis, till the arrival of the royal forces 
from abroad. He was joined, however, by the Earl of Kil- 
marnock, Lords Balmerino. Cromarty, Elcho, Ogilvy, Pitsligo, 
and the eldest son of Lord Lovat, who with their vassals, 
increased his forces to nearly eight thousand men. Lord Lovat 
himself was favorably disposed toward the Pretender, although 
unwilling, for fear of the government, to act openly. 

Marshal Wade, with eleven thousand men, received orders 
to march to the north to suppress the insurrection, and took 
up his head-quarters, at Newcastle-on-Tyne. After the recent 
victory, there was great difference of opinion among the friends 
of the prince as to the course to be pursued, but encouraged 
by letters from the southern Jacobites, he resolved on an 
irruption into England. He entered that country by the 
western border, and took the town of Carlisle ; after which 
he continued his march southward, in expectation of a great 
accession of force. He established his head-quarters at Man- 
chester, but although the inhabitants of that town received 
him with marks of affection and regard, their cautious com- 
mercial habits prevented them from joining him; two hun- 
dred men, headed by Mr. Townley, a Catholic gentleman of 
eminence, who had served in the French army, were the only 
addition to his army. From Manchester, he pursued his 
march to Derby. Although within one hundred and thirty 
miles of London, the position of the rebels was most critical. 
The Duke of Cumberland had taken his post near Stone in 
Staffordshire, with thirteen thousand veterans, and Marshal 
Wade was advancing with his army from Newcastle through 
Yorkshire, and London was in a state of consternation, but a 
courier brought information that thirty thousand men were 



306 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

encamped on Finchley common. The spirit of faction, which 
will ever destroy the best conducted enterprise, prevailed in 
the prince's councils. The Highland chiefs, equally averse 
to discipline and incapable of command, began to murmur 
and became unruly. The Welch, on whom he had greatly 
relied, took no steps to excite an insurrection in his favor ; 
and the French made no attempt toward an invasion. Win- 
ter was approaching, and the passage to London must be 
forced through the Duke of Cumberland's army. His friends 
in Scotland were daily increasing but refused to advance into 
England. A retreat to Scotland with all possible expedition, 
was, in this state of things, wisely determined on. 

The retreat of the rebels was conducted with a degree ol 
intrepidity and address, unparalleled by any body of men, 
under similar circumstances. Although the bridges were 
broken down, the country alarmed, and detachments of horse 
from both the royal armies hovering near them, they reached 
Preston without the loss of a single man; they then pro- 
ceeded to Carlisle, and crossing the Eden and Solway, reen- 
tered Scotland with their cannon. Charles proceeded by 
way of Dumfries to Glasgow, from which last city he ex- 
acted severe contributions, on account of its attachment to 
the government. After resting there several days, he ad- 
vanced toward Stirling, and was joined by some forces which 
had been raised in his absence by Lords Lewis Gordon and 
John Drummond, brothers to the Dukes of Gordon and 
Perth. Other clans came in ; while supplies were received 
from Spain ; and some skirmishes with the royalists in which 
he was victorious, caused the Pretender's affairs to assume 
once more a promising aspect. The young chevalier in- 
vested the castle of Stirling, which was gallantly held out 
by General Blakeney. 

By this time a considerable body of forces was assembled 
at Edinburgh under General Hawley, who determined to re- 
lieve Stirling castle, and advanced to Linlithgow on the 13th 
of January ; on the following day, his whole army encamped 



GEORGE II. 307 

at Falkirk, while the Highlanders were at Bannockburn. 
After some time spent in mutual observation, an engagement 
took place on the 17th, in which the king's troops were com- 
pletely defeated. The onset of the Highlanders proving irre- 
sistible, the greater part of the royal force fled in the utmost 
consternation, leaving their tents and artillery to the enemy. 
The prince, instead of following up this victory, was ob- 
stinately bent on reducing Stirling castle ; and thus caused 
great dissatisfaction to the Highlanders ; many of whom re- 
tired in disgust to their mountains. The royal army in Scot- 
land was reinforced, and the Duke of Cumberland arrived 
to assume the command. This nobleman having put him- 
self at the head of the troops at Edinburgh, amounting to 
upward of fourteen thousand men, and secured the import- 
ant posts of Stirling and Perth, from which places success- 
ively the Pretender retired by Badenoch to Inverness and 
Fort Augustus, advanced with the army to Aberdeen, where 
he was joined by the Duke of Gordon, the Earls of Aberdeen 
and Findlater, the Laird of Grant, and other persons of dis- 
tinction. In the beginning of April, the duke passed the 
deep and rapid river Sprey, and proceeded to Navin ; where 
he received intelligence that the enemy had advanced 
from Inverness to Culloden, with the intention of giving him 
battle. The rebels having failed in an attempt to surprise 
the enemy at Nairn during the night, marched back to their 
camp at Culloden moor; where, in a fit of desperation, it 
was resolved to receive the king's troops in order of battle. 
Early in the morning of the 16th of April, the Pretender's 
forces were formed into lines. The front consisted of the 
following clan regiments : Athol, Cameron, Appin, Fraser, 
Mac Intosh, Mac Laughton, John Roy Stuart, Farquharson, 
Clanronald, Keppoch, and Glengary. The second com- 
prised the low country and the foreign regiments. Four 
pieces of cannon were planted at each extremity of the front, 
and as many in the center. Lord George Murray com- 
manded the right wing of the first line, Lord John Drummond 
13* 



808 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the left, and General Stapleton the second line. The Prince 
remained on an eminence. The rebels, who had been suf- 
fering some days from want of food and proper necessaries, 
scarcely amounted to five thousand men. After a severely 
contested battle, in which considerable courage was displayed 
on both sides, victory declared in favor of the royalist party. 

After the battle, the conquerors, acting under the duke's 
orders, behaved with great cruelty. He ordered thirty-six 
deserters to be executed ; and, as he advanced into the 
Highlands, the whole country became the scene of plunder, 
slaughter, and desolation. The castles of Glengary and Lo- 
chiel were plundered and burned ; cattle and provisions car- 
ried off; the men either shot on the mountains like wild 
beasts, or put to death in cold blood. 

Immediately after the battle of Culloden, the prince fled 
with a captain of cavalry, and when their horses were fa- 
tigued, they both alighted and separately sought for safety. 
Armed troops followed him night and day; sometimes in 
woman's attire, he passed through the midst of his enemies, 
or, disguised as a traveling mountaineer, he wandered about 
among the woods. He suffered every privation arising from 
hunger, thirst, and weariness.- The constancy displayed by 
the Highlanders was beyond all praise. Charles' life was 
entrusted to hundreds of individuals of all classes, yet not 
one seems to have entertained the idea of giving him up, 
even though certain of a reward of £30,000, but all endeav- 
ored, many at the risk of their own lives, to facilitate his 
escape. At length, after five months of severe suffering, a 
privateer of St. Maloes, hired by his adherents, having ar- 
rived at Lochnarach, he embarked on board of that vessel 
for France. About one hundred persons, who, like himself, 
had concealed themselves in the mountains (among others, 
Cameron of Lochiel and his brother) went on board with 
him, and on the 29th of September, they landed at Roscort, 
in Brittany. With this rebellion, all hopes of the restora- 
tion of the Stuart dynasty expired. 



GEORGE II. 309 

While the Pretender was thus pursued, scaffolds were 
erecting for his adherents. Courts were opened in different 
parts of England for the trial of the rebel -prisoners. Seven- 
teen officers were condemned at Southwark, and executed on 
Kennington Common; thirty-one of the captives suffered 
death in Cumberland, and twenty-two in Yorkshire; all 
seemed to glory in the cause for which they died. To such 
an extent was vengeance carried, that it was thought neces- 
sary to execute Mr. Radcliffe, brother to Lord Derwentwater, 
on a conviction of having been formerly engaged in the re- 
bellion of 1715. The earls of Kilmarnock and Cromarty, 
and Lord Balmerino, were tried and found guilty of high 
treason. Cromarty was pardoned, but the others were exe- 
euted. Lord Lovat, after an obstinate defense, was found 
guilty of aiding the Pretender. This nobleman, during the 
space which intervened between his sentence and execution, 
maintained the same flow of animal spirits and sarcastic wit, 
for which he had been so remarkable throughout his life. 
On the scaffold, he felt the edge of the ax, and expressed 
himself satisfied with its sharpness ; called the executioner, 
and, giving him ten guineas, bid him do his duty with firm- 
ness ; then, surveying the crowd, he exclaimed with firmness, 
" Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." With the same 
cool resignation he submitted to the executioner, who sev- 
ered the head from the body at one blow. 

The rebellion being suppressed, government omitted no 
precaution for preserving the tranquility of Scotland. To se- 
cure the peace of the Highlands, a bill was passed, not only 
for disarming the clans, but for restraining the use of the 
national garb, which was deemed obnoxious, from its ten- 
dency to keep alive party distinctions, and to perpetuate the 
devotion of the people to the Stuart line. The heads of the 
clans were also deprived of their exclusive heritable juris- 
dictions, and severe laws were enacted against the Episcopal 
clergy and their followers, who had warmly supported the 
rebellion. However unnecessarily harsh some of the measures 



310 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

pursued might have been, they completely effected their 
purpose ; the spirit of the Jacobites gradually became extinct. 

After the conclusion of the rebellion, the Duke of Cum- 
berland returned to command the army in Flanders. Dur- 
ing his absence, the French had carried every thing before 
them. The city of Brussels surrendered to the victorious 
power of Marshal Saxe ; after which Antwerp, Mons. Char- 
leroi, St. Guislain, and Namur, surrendered in succession to 
his arms. The military genius and feats of Marlborough 
seemed now to be revived in the person of Saxe. The vic- 
tory which he gained over the allies at Rocroix, although it 
led to no important results, terminated the campaign with 
great eclat. Early in 1747, Lowendahl, with twenty thousand 
men, invaded Holland ; and in less than a month, all the 
Dutch fortresses on the left bank of the Scheldt were in the 
hands of the French. The Duke of Cumberland received a 
severe repulse from Saxe at the battle of Val, while the tak- 
ing of Bergen- ap-Zoom, the strongest fortification in Brabant, 
reduced the Dutch to the greatest alarm and distress. 

These victories and successes in Flanders, however, were 
counterbalanced by equal disappointments. In Italy, thirty- 
four thousand French, in attempting to penetrate into Pied- 
mont, were defeated with great loss, by a very inferior force 
of the gallant people of that district. The enemy had fitted 
out a fleet for the recovery of Cape Breton, but without suc- 
cess. The English fleet under the Admirals Anson and 
Warren, fell in, off Cape Fenisterre, with the French fleet, 
which was escorting thirty ships laden with stores and mer- 
chandises. A battle ensued, which ended in the capture o. 
six French ships of war, and four armed Indiamen. Shortly 
after this engagement, Commodore Fox encountered a fleei 
from St. Domingo, laden with the rich productions of tha' 
Island ; and forty-six vessels became prizes to the English 
The like success attended Admiral Hawke, who, in the lati 
tude of Belleisle, defeated the French fleet, and captured sh 
ships of the line. 



GEORGE II. Sll 

These naval victories added to the exhausted state of their 
finances, and the injuries which the French trade had suf- 
fered, induced Louis, in spite of his military successes, seri- 
ously to think of peace. The liberality of the British 
Parliament, whose resources were yet considerable, enabled 
their sovereign to conclude a treaty with the Empress of 
Russia, who engaged to aid the allies with thirty thousand 
troops; and the election of a stadtholder in Holland, who 
gave spirit to the opposition, rendered peace indispensable 
for the safety of France. Louis accordingly made advances 
toward an accommodation with the courts of London and 
the Hague : and as all parties were tired of the war, it was 
agreed to hold a Congress. On the 18th of October, 1748, 
a definite treaty, between the belligerents, was signed at Aix- 
la-Chapelle, by which it was provided that a mutual restitu- 
tion of all conquests made since the beginning of the war, 
with a release of all prisoners, without ransom, should take 
place ; that the Duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla 
should be given up to Philip, heir-apparent to the Spanish 
Crown ; but if he should become King of Spain, they should 
be restored to Austria; that the King of Prussia should be 
confirmed in the possession of Silesia ; and that the " prag- 
matic sanction " should be ratified. The French, with unex- 
ampled insolence, required British hostages to reside in 
France, till the reciprocal restitution of territories should 
be actually made ; which requisition, to the mortification and 
disgrace of England, was acceded to ; and the Earls of Sus- 
sex and Cathcart were named as hostages. The remote cause 
of the war seemed in its progress to be entirely forgotten, and 
at the conclusion not a syllable was mentioned respecting the 
pretended right of searching British vessels in the American 
seas, which had formerly caused such indignant clamor. 
Thus ended this ruinous continental war, undertaken to pre- 
serve entire the possessions of the House of Austria ; in the 
course of which the national debt of Great Britain increased 
to eishtv millions sterling. 



312 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Since the termination of the rebellion, the popularity of 
the king had increased; his ministers also acquired much of 
the public confidence, and the opposition seemed to decrease 
in the favor of the people. In the midst of this compara- 
tive tranquility, the Prince of Wales, who, from recent 
causes, had become more than ever alienated from the court, 
died, March 20, 1751, leaving his offspring to the care of the 
princess. In the following year, the real mover of the oppo- 
sition, Lord Bolingbroke, died. In the latter years of his 
life, excluded from Parliament, he resided in his sequestered 
mansion at Dawley, in Middlesex. 

Next to the minister himself, three of the most distinguished 
personages at this period in the British Parliament, were Mr. 
Murray, Solicitor General ; Mr. Pitt, the Paymaster of the 
forces ; and Mr. Fox, Secretary of War. Murray was 
descended from a Jacobite family in Scotland. His person 
was graceful, and his style of oratory dignified and persua- 
sive. The progress of his fortunes elevated him to the Chief- 
Justiceship of England, and the title of the Earl of Mans- 
field. Pitt, afterwards the Earl of Chatham, commenced life 
as a cornet of horse ; and on his introduction to the House 
of Commons, soon distinguished himself by the animation 
of his eloquence, and the superiority of his talents. As a 
public speaker, he possessed such commanding force and 
energy of language as struck his hearers with astonishment and 
admiration, and his opponents with terror and dismay. He 
was ambitious, but his ambition was guided by an enthusi- 
astic love of England and the English constitution. He 
was pertinacious in his opinions, imperious in his deport- 
ment, and fearless in his conduct. Fox, subsequently known 
as Lord Holland, was a man of vigorous understanding and 
extensive knowledge. 

During the few years of peace that succeeded the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, the state of Europe appears to have been 
prosperous ; manufactures and commerce flourished, society- 
became more refined, and the intercourse of mankind was 



GEORGE II. 313 

rendered more general. At home, the national prosperity 
was so great, by the extension of commerce, and the judi- 
cious reduction of the war establishment, that the public 
funds, nearly all of which bore the interest of four per cent., 
rose much above par. Mr. Pelham, acting on the advice of 
Sir J. Barnard, seized on this favorable opportunity for 
reducing the national debt. 

In the year 1752, a remarkable bill, namely, the remodel- 
ing of the calendar, was introduced into Parliament by Lord 
Chesterfield ; which was opposed by the Duke of Newcas- 
tle, one of the ministers. By the Julian computation of 
time hitherto used, a difference of eleven days had occurred 
in the lapse of eighteen centuries, owing to the apparently 
trifling deficiency of eleven minutes in the calculation of the 
annual solar revolution. A reformation of the calendar had 
taken place in Catholic countries, in the sixteenth century, 
under the auspices of Pope Gregory XIII. By the bill now 
introduced,, it was decreed that the new year should begin on 
the 1st of January, and that the eleven intermediate nominal 
days, between the 2nd and 14th of September, 1752, should 
be omitted, so that the day succeeding the 2nd should be 
called the 14th of that month. In the following year, a bill 
for the naturalization of Jews born out of the realm, under 
certain restrictions, was passed. This enactment proved 
most unpopular with the nation, and almost produced a gen- 
eral insurrection ; and Parliament, in obedience to public 
prejudice, was, in the ensuing session, obliged to repeal this 
law. 

In March, 1754, Mr. Pelham died, in the height of his 
reputation. Had the mind of Pelham been of an enterprising 
cast, he would have descended to posterity as a great states- 
man ; he is now known as an honest minister. " He lived," 
says Horace Walpole, " without abusing his power, and 
died poor." Lord Chesterfield, who knew him well, informs 
us that he had many domestic virtues, and no vices. The 
king, who was sincerely attached to his minister, exclaimed, 



314 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

on hearing of his death, " I shall now have no more peace!' 
The Duke of Newcastle, a weak and incapable man, suc- 
ceeded Pelham, his brother, at the head of the administration ; 
with Mr. Legge, a man of honor and capacity, as Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer. 

The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, whatever it had effected for 
a time in Europe, had by no means put an end to hostilities 
between the French and the English in other quarters of the 
globe. The territories of the two countries in America and 
the East Indies had never been accurately defined by treaties, 
and were constantly the subject of local dispute and warfare. 
The French government, borne down by the weight of the 
national expenditure, looked for relief in an extension of their 
possessions in these two countries. The ministers of England 
appeared to have very confused ideas on the subject of her 
colonies. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, it was declared 
that all matters relative to America should be placed on the 
footing on which they were previous to the war. The province 
of Acadia, or as it is now called, Nova Scotia, had been ceded 
to England by the peace of Utrecht. Disputes had long pre- 
vailed as to the ancient boundaries of this province ; the 
English claiming the whole territory as far as the southern 
side of the river St. Lawrence ; the French admitting their 
right only to the peninsula of Acadia. The river Mississippi 
also formed another subject of contention in America. The 
French pretending to have discovered the mouth of the river, 
claimed the whole adjacent country toward New Mexico on 
the East, and to the Apalachian or Blue Mountains on the 
west. A systematic and artfully concerted plan was formed 
by them, to connect their colonies on the St. Lawrence with 
those on the Mississippi, by the gradual erection of a chain 
of fortresses from the lakes Erie and Ontario, along and 
beyond the Ohio, to the mouths of the Mississippi ; thus 
cutting off the internal trade of the English with the Indians 
in time of peace; and compelling them, in time of war, to 
defend a frontier of one thousand two hundred miles against 



GEORGE II. 315 

the natives conducted by French officers, and supported by 
disciplined troops. To permit this was in effect to consent 
to the extinction of the British settlements. This vast chain 
of fortresses was almost completed from Quebec to New Or- 
leans, when the English government, indignant at the reiter- 
ated aggressions of the French, broke off the conferences 
which had been entered into relative to the limits of Nova 
Scotia ; and sent orders to the governors of the British settle- 
ments to form a confederacy for their mutual support, and to 
repel force by force. In the year 1754, Major Washington, 
(in after times the celebrated statesman and general of the 
United States of America, and who had already distinguished 
himself by his gallantry and spirit) was sent by the Governor 
of Virginia to occupy a post on the Ohio with a small force ; 
he was, however, attacked in a fort which he had erected, by 
a much superior detachment of French and Indians, and com- 
pelled ultimately to capitulate. This event was looked on 
in England as an open violation of the peace ; and after 
many negotiations and mutual accusations, four operations 
were, in 1*756, undertaken by the British in America at the 
same time. Colonel Monckton had orders to expel the 
French from the province of Nova Scotia, which he did; 
General Johnson was sent against the French fortresses on 
the lakes Champlain and Ontario, where he proved victori- 
ous ; General Shirley was dispatched to secure the forts on 
the river Niagara, but lost the opportunity of success by 
delay; and general Braddock, in an expedition against Fort 
du Quesne, was defeated and killed. The English followed 
up these attacks by issuing letters of general reprisal, as well 
in Europe as America : under the authority of which, three 
hundred merchant-ships, with not less than eight thousand 
sailors on board, were taken. 

The French having fitted out a formidable fleet at Brest 
and Dunkirk, the idea of an invasion became generally prev- 
alent in England. The ministry were alarmed, and to the 
indignation of the country, introduced into the island ten 
14 



316 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

thousand Hessian and Hanoverian troops. The threatened 
invasion, however, never took place. A French army landed 
in the island of Minorca and invested the citadel of St. Philip's, 
which was considered the strongest in Europe. Admiral Byng, 
son of the gallant and heroic Admiral Lord Torrington, was 
ordered with a squadron often men of war to relieve Minorca, 
or at least to throw a body of troops into the garrison. This 
last command Byng never attempted to execute ; on the 
appearance of a French fleet, nearly equal in force to his 
own, he resolved to act only on the defensive. For his back- 
wardness in seconding Admiral West, who was next to him 
in command, he was condemned by a court-martial, and 
executed. 

The irresolution and incapacity of the Duke of Newcastle 
had long been apparent to the nation ; and the ministry was 
at last dissolved. Mr. Pitt, (a. d. 1*756) was now appointed 
Secretary of State. Newcastle was succeeded at the Treas- 
ury by the Duke of Devonshire, and Mr. George Grenville 
became Treasurer of the Navy. The nation entertained great 
expectations from the talents of Pitt, who had to contend 
against many difficulties ; the dislike of the Crown, and the 
opposition of the former minister and his supporter, Mr. Fox. 

At the beginning of the war, British affairs in Germany had 
worn a very unfavorable aspect. The Hanoverians were 
commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, who, greatly out- 
numbered by the enemy, was obliged to retire beyond the 
Weser. The French pursued ; the duke endeavored to make 
a stand against them near a village called Hastenbach ; but 
the Hanoverians, after a feeble resistance, left the field of 
their opponents, and retired to Stade. Here the Duke was 
surrounded on all sides by the French ; unable to continue 
his retreat, too weak to offer resistance, he was compelled to 
sign a capitulation, and lay down his arms. By the capitu- 
lation of Closterseven, Hanover was taken possession of by 
the French. Germany and Prussia now appeared to be at the 
mercy of France. The extraordinary genius of Frederick 



GEORGE II. 317 

soon reversed the scene ; with an army of twenty-four thou- 
sand men, he attacked, and defeated with dreadful loss, fifty 
thousand Austrians at Rosbach ; and within a month after- 
ward, in the depth of winter, routed another Austrian army 
at Lissa. 

The cruelties of the French, when occupying Hanover 
excited a deadly feeling of revenge in the minds of the inhab 
itants ; and the victories of Frederick enabled the Hanove 
rian army to renew hostilities. Commanded by Prince Fer 
dinand of Brunswick, they drove the French from their con 
quests, and compelled them, with the loss of ten thousand 
men, to re-cross the Rhine. In the following year, 1*759, the 
commencement of hostilities was unfavorable, but soon after, 
in the battle of Minden, seventy thousand French were 
defeated and almost cut to pieces by half that number. This 
and other glorious victories, and the destruction of Thurot's 
squadron by Elliot, not only freed the country from all appre- 
hensions of an invasion, but almost deprived France of a 
navy. In America, British valor was equally triumphant, 
and there remained only one blow to be struck to reduce the 
whole of North America to the British dominion : namely, 
the capture of the capital of Canada. On the 26th of June, 
the armament destined for this expedition, arrived, under Gen- 
eral Wolfe, at the island of Orleans. Wolfe first attacked 
the French in their entrenchments near the falls of Montmo- 
renci, but was compelled to withdraw to the island of Orleans 
with considerable loss. On the 13th of September, he again 
embarked his troops, and in silence, passed the French sen- 
tinels posted on the shore. The English found themselves at 
the foot of a precipice, esteemed inaccessible, and defended 
by only one hundred and fifty men. The troops, who nothing 
could discourage, raised themselves up by stumps and boughs 
of trees, overpowered the guard, and after a most sanguinary 
action, in which Wolfe lost his life, obtained possession of the 
whole city. The reduction of Montreal speedily followed, 
and the whole province of Canada was added to the British 



318 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

empire. Soon after this event, George II died, regretted by 
his subjects as a mild and humane sovereign, but without any 
of those splendid virtues which add luster to a throne. 



During this reign, the national debt of England began to 
assume its present formidable character ; although its history 
is to be traced from the reign of Charles II, who, by shutting 
the Exchequer in 1672, forced from his subjects a loan of 
£1,328,526. In the last year of his own reign, in the reign 
of his brother, and the greater part of that of William, not 
even the interest was paid upon this sum, which consequently 
accumulated rapidly. Under William it was arbitrarily 
reduced to £664,263, and this never paid, remains the basis 
of the present enormous burden. Other loans were obtained 
from time to time, and at the death of William the whole 
amounted to £16,394,702. The succeeding continental and 
colonial wars rendered further loans necessary, and, by the 
close of the next reign, it had increased to £52,142,363. 
Under George I, great efforts were made to pay it, but with 
little success : for at his death, it was still £52,092,235. 
During the wars under George II, it accumulated so fast that 
he left it more than £100,000,000, and so expensive were the 
military enterprises of his successor, that they augmented by 
fully seven-fold, this bond by which so many of the capitalists 
of England are bound to the government. 

For the year 1703, the value of all exports was £6,644,103. 
A depression followed during the war, until 1712, when it 
was £6,868,840, and for the three following years, it averaged 
£7,696,573. As long as the peace lasted, it steadily increased, 
till 1738, which, with the two previous years, gives an average 
of £9,933,232. In the succeeding war it was reduced by more 
than a million ; but in the first year of peace, it amounted to 
£11,141,202, and by 1760, was as high as £14,693,270. 

One cause of this expansion of the national commerce lay 
in the growth of the American colonies. Emigration to them 
was now so common, that in the year 1729, no less than six 



GEORGE II. 319 

thousand two hundred and eight emigrants landed in Penn- 
sylvania alone. This rapid increase of population without 
a corresponding growth of manufactures, opened a valuable 
market for British goods. 

Machinery was already employed in the silk and woolen 
manufactures ; but success had not yet attended its applica- 
tion to the production of cotton goods. 

The great architectural works of Sir Christopher Wren, 
were mostly finished after the Revolution. Within the same 
time, Vanbrugh, Gibbs, Hawksmoor, and others, attained 
honorable distinction in the same art. Music took the highest 
rank it ever reached in England, from the genius of Purcell 
and Handell. With the exception of the works of Hogarth, 
there was little of merit in the field of painting. Most of the 
pictures by Kneller did more to degrade than elevate the art. 

Science was honored by the discoveries of Plarvey and 
Newton, and literature by the writings of Locke, Swift, Pope, 
Addison, Steele, Rowe, Young, Thompson, and many others. 

Fashionable life still retained the frivolous and de- 
praved stamps impressed upon it in the time of Charles II. 
The progress of intemperance among all classes was alarm- 
ing, and not even the streets of the capital were free from 
bands of desperadoes. The corrupting influence of high life 
had now extended to the middle ranks of society, and irreli- 
gion was the tone of the day. The great revival of religion 
which occurred toward the middle of the century seems to 
have been needed to save Christianity and virtue from utter 
extinction. 

The East India Company had now recovered from their 
depression, and, by their agent, Clive, were already advancing 
upon that career of victory, which has resulted in placing 
them at the head of all corporations, and constituted them the 
sovereigns of an empire of more than one hundred thousand 
inhabitants, with an annual revenue of more than three 
millions sterling, and with an army at their command of 
two hundred thousand men. 



320 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

GEORGE III. 

Born 1738 — Began to reign 1760 — Died 1820 — Reigned 59 years. 

George III, grandson to George II, ascended the throne in 
his twenty-second year. By his recommendation, an act 
was passed, securing the commissions and salaries of the 
judges from all contingencies, but misconduct or death ; a 
measure essential to the impartial administration of justice, 
and one of the best securities of the liberties of the subject. 

An attempt to effect a negotiation between France and 
England, broken off by a quarrel with Spain ; and that 
country entered into a close alliance with France against 
Great Britain. Portugal refused to join in this treaty. An 
invasion of her territory ensued ; but the timely arrival of 
eight thousand English, under General Burgoyne, compelled 
the Spanish army to retreat within its own frontiers. 

While the war was thus proceeding in Portugal, Frederick 
of Prussia retrieved his losses ; and the rapid succession of 
Peter III and the Empress Catharine to the Crown of Russia, 
the former an avowed friend of Frederick, and the latter 
indisposed to act against him, withdrew that country from the 
ranks of his enemies. Soon after this, a treaty of peace was 
signed, and conquests of the most important nature secured 
to Great Britain. 

Lord Bute, for some time premier, was compelled to re- 
sign, although, from his well-known interest at court, he was 
supposed to be still mainly instrumental in carrying on the 
government. Mr. John Wilkes at this time engrossed the 
attention of the nation by his scurrilous publications, and he 
repeatedly felt the vengeance of the law. Having at length 
retired to France, he wrs declared an outlaw. 



GEORGE III. 321 

In 1768, Parliament was dissolved, and writs issued for the 
election of a new one. Mr. Wilkes returned to England, 
and declared himself a candidate for the representation of 
Middlesex, and was elected by a large majority. He then, 
with great discretion, surrendered to the King's Bench prison, 
and obtaining a reversal of his outlawry, applied to the court 
to set aside the verdicts procured in his absence ; in this he 
failed ; he was condemned to suffer two years' imprisonment, 
and to pay a fine of £1000. When the Parliament assem- 
bled, (10th of May, 1768) a riot took place, the populace 
being anxious to release the prisoner. Wilkes being sen- 
tenced to a long imprisonment, and being incapable of at- 
tending his duty in Parliament, was expelled the house. His 
constituents reelected him without hesitation ; the Commons 
pronounced him incapable of serving in that parliament, 
and the election was declared void. The freeholders of Mid- 
dlesex, equally determined as the House of Commons, again 
elected him ; and again the Commons declared the return 
null. At the fourth election, Colonel Luttrel offered him- 
self as a candidate, in opposition to Wilkes ; but althongh 
the interest of the court procured him a few votes, his oppo- 
nent was chosen. The house annulled the votes which had 
been given for Wilkes, and declared (March 3, 1769) Lut- 
trell duly elected. 

In the year 1770 Lord North became prime minister in the 
place of the Duke of Grafton, who resigned. 

The colonial agitations now assumed a more serious as- 
pect. Dissatisfaction had long existed in relation to various 
restrictions laid upon the trade of the colonies, and discourage- 
ment of their manufactures, the object of which was to keep 
them dependent upon British markets. The first act avow- 
edly for raising a revenue in America was passed in 1764, 
and the next year it was followed by the Stamp act, whereby 
all bonds, notes and such like instruments were made void, 
unless written on stamped paper on which duty was imposed. 
Much displeasure was thereby excited, because it was denied 



322 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 

that parliament had the right of taxing those who enjoyed 
no representation in their body, and the obnoxious act was 
repealed next year; but with the declaration of the " right 
of Parliament to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." 
The following year, 1767, a bill was passed imposing " a duty 
on glass, paper, pasteboard, painter's colors and tea, imported 
into the colonies." The colonists combined to decline the 
purchase of these articles; and in 1770, the tax was with- 
drawn from all of them except the tea. Meetings were held 
in different towns, and it was resolved that tea, on which a 
duty was paid, should be excluded from their ports. Parlia- 
ment, with a view of breaking up that combination, granted 
to the East India Company, a drawback of duties on tea, ex- 
ported to America, to enable them to sell it there cheaper than 
in England. Large shipments were thereupon made ; but at 
New York and Philadelphia they were not permitted to be 
landed, nor at Charleston to be put to sale, and, at Boston, 
the tea-ships were boarded by a party of men disguised as 
Indians, who discharged their valuable cargoes into the sea. 
On this, Parliament passed bills for shutting up the port of 
Boston, and altering the constitution of the Massachusetts 
colony, subverting the charter government, and vestisg the 
appointment of the council and judges in the Crown. The 
other colonies made common cause with Boston ; and a day 
was set apart, throughout America, to implore the Divine 
interposition to avert the calamities which threatened destruc- 
tion to their civil rights. A General Congress met (1774) at 
Philadelphia, of delegates representing twelve of the colo- 
nies lying along the shore of the Atlantic, from New Hamp- 
shire to South Carolina ; a declaration of rights was drawn 
up, a petition, setting forth all their grievances, forwarded to 
the king, and an agreement entered into to suspend all inter« 
course with the mother country. 

Scarcely was this affair terminated, when the minister 
resolved on a measure, in its ultimate results the most im- 
portant which ever, perhaps, came under the cognizance of 



GEORGE III. 323 

Parliament. The unexampled expenses of the late war 
having added heavily to the burthens of the country, and 
great difficulty having been experienced in discovering new 
sources of revenue, the attention of Mr. Grenville was early 
turned to the North American colonies, with a view to taxa- 
tion. The consideration of increasing the prosperity of these 
states, authorized, it was said, the imposition of burthens 
which would tend to the relief of the mother country. To 
this the colonists replied, that to impose taxation without 
the consent of those who were to raise the impost, was tyr- 
anny. The minister, however, determined on making the 
attempt ; accordingly, a bill for imposing stamp duties on 
all mercantile transactions in the colonies, after long and 
warm debates, passed both Houses. The resentment of the 
Americans against this measure knew no bounds, and was 
greatly increased by the destruction of their illicit trade with 
the Spanish settlements. A Congress of deputies from the 
different states was called, and strong remonstrances voted. 
The progress of these dissentions was arrested by the down- 
fall of the Grenville administration. A new ministry 
was formed, at the head of which was the Marquis of 
Rockingham. This new cabinet was, however, displeas- 
ing to the king, and in a short time the marquis was dis- 
placed for the Duke of Grafton. Other changes succeeded, 
and the government was for a long time disturbed and un- 
settled. 

During this state of affairs, the opinion of the nation was 
taken on the subject of the disputes with America. In the 
new Parliament, Mr. Pitt, who had been created Lord Chat- 
ham, developed his plan for the settlement of the question, 
and warned, in the highest strain of impassioned eloquence, 
the ministry of the danger which would result from their pres- 
ent policy. His eloquence was, however, vain, and all idea 
of conciliation rejected. Franklin finding all his wishes to 
procure an accommodation useless, sailed for America, pre- 
pared to stand or fall with his countrymen. 



324 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The war with America was now carried on with much loss 
on both sides. The ministry, at first rejected all attempt to 
arrange the quarrel by treaty, and when at length they of- 
fered terms, it was too late ; and a general gloom, in conse- 
quence, prevailed throughout England. 

The French monarch, Louis XVI, seized on the present mo- 
ment of national despondence to give a fatal blow to the power 
of his rival. The French court had for some time been prepar- 
ing to reap advantage from the present contest; and now, 
dreading lest the Americans should be induced to accept the 
liberal terms they knew were to be offered, entered into a treaty 
of mutual assistance with the revolted provinces ; and the con- 
tracting parties agreed not to lay down their arms till the in- 
dependence of America was formally acknowledged. This 
alliance was no sooner known in England, than vigorous 
preparations for hostilities with France were begun. On the 
7th of April, the Duke of Richmond moved an address to the 
throne, the compliance of which would have been an acknowl- 
edgment of American independence. The Earl of Chatham, 
the firm friend of the colonists, was strongly opposed 
to their claim of independence, and determined, at the 
hazard of his life, to come forward and protest against it 
From a bed of sickness, this renowned statesman and patriot 
was carried to the House of Lords, wrapped up in flannel, 
When parliamentary businesss was about to begin, he was 
led into the chamber ; the hand of death was on him. The 
lords stood up and made a lane for him to pass to the earls' 
bench, while he gracefully bowed as he proceeded. When 
he rose to protest against the dismemberment of this ancienl 
and noble monarchy, he was listened to with an affecting 
reverence and silence. On his sitting down, the Duke of 
Richmond replied ; and no sooner had that nobleman fin 
ished, than Lord Chatham made an eager effort to rise, but 
before he could utter a word, pressing his hand on his bosom, 
he fell down in convulsions. The duke of Cumberland, anc 
other peers, caught him in their arms. Medical aid beinf 



GEORGE III. 325 

obtained, his lordship in some degree recovered, but, after 
lingering a few weeks, expired. 

War had not yet been formally pronounced between France 
and England ; but a fleet, under the command of Admiral 
Keppel, was sent to cruise in the channel. On the 27th of 
July, an engagement took place off the isle of Ushant, 
between this squadron and a French fleet of superior num- 
bers. The result did not prove very fortunate. A court- 
martial was held on Keppel, in consequence of this ; but 
he was acquitted, and his accuser reprimanded. Spain 
now joined the American cause, and commenced hostilities 
against England. 

His majesty applied to Holland for that assistance which 
they were bound by treaty to afford. The Dutch, however, 
desirous of profiting by the American trade, had entered into 
a secret commercial engagement with the Congress, incon- 
sistent with the British alliance. This negotiation was, how- 
ever not yet known by the ministers, who therefore merely 
remonstrated against the neglect of former stipulations. 

During the session of 1778, some of the penal laws against 
Roman Catholics had been repealed. A party opposed to 
their repeal formed themselves into a " Protestant Associa- 
tion," of which Lord George Gordon, a wild and enthusias- 
tic man, was chosen president. A petition for the revival 
of the penal laws was prepared by the society, and having 
been signed by great numbers, the presentation of it was 
entrusted to their president. The rejection of this petition 
brought on a series of dreadful riots in London, which were 
only suppressed by calling out the military. 

The malpractices of the Dutch were now discovered, and 
war was therefore declared ; and thus was England engaeed 
with a fourth enemy, without a single ally. The Dutch soon 
experienced the effects of British hostilites. The islands of 
St. Martin and Saba, and the continental colonies of Ber- 
bice and Demerara, were added to the British possessions. 
At the same time, the powers of the Baltic entered into a 



326 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

confederation, which acquired the appellation of " the armed 
neutrality," for the professed purpose of protecting their 
commerce against seizure by the belligerents; but, in reality, 
with a design of crushing the maritime power of Great 
Britain. 

The American war, which had for a time proceeded suc- 
cessfully, was at length decided against Great Britain, prin- 
cipally by the capitulation of Lord Comwallis. The nation 
began to cry out for peace. Lord North resigned, and was 
succeeded by the Marquis of Rockingham, whose early death 
made way for the Earl of Shelbourne. He, in his turn, was 
forced out of office by a disgraceful coalition between Mr. 
Fox and Lord North : and these rapid changes led to a gen- 
eral peace, by which the independence of the American States 
was fully recognized, in 1*782. 

The success of the coalition between Mr. Fox and Lord 
North was of short duration. The ministry, in consequence 
of the failure of Mr. Fox's India Bill, was dismissed, and a 
new administration was formed, (a. d. 1*783) of which Mr. 
Pitt, son of the late Lord Chatham, was the chief. The late 
ministry had, however, a large majority in the Commons, 
which obstructed the career of their rivals by vigorous efforts. 
All the ministerial propositions were indignantly rejected, and 
strong resolutions fulminated against the court for supporting 
an administration which did not enjoy the confidence of the 
representative branch of the Legislature. The supplies were 
no sooner granted, than Pitt dissolved Parliament (1*784) and 
at the next meeting of that body, found himself in a tri- 
umphant majority. 

In the year 1787, Mr. Sheridan, aided by Mr. Burke, Mr. 
Fox, and several others, brought forward a motion for the 
impeachment of Mr. Warren Hastings, late Governor of 
India, for high crimes and misdemeanors in the execution of 
his office. The trial, after dragging its weary length seven 
years before the House of Lords, ended in the acquittal of 
Mr. Hastings. In the early part of the year 1788, the king 



GEORGE III. 327 

was taken ill, and his disorder was asserted to be insanity. 
As his majesty was thus rendered incapable of exercising his 
polhical functions, the consideration of a regency naturally 
occupied the attention of Parliament. The prince's friends, 
the Whigs, affirmed that the prince had an unquestion- 
able right to the regency, while the ministers asserted 
that. Parliament had the privilege of selection, and the 
prince had no more right than any other subject. (1789.) 
After long discussions, and much recrimination, it was 
settled that the Prince of Wales should be declared regent, 
restricted, however, in the grant of employment and the 
honors of peerage ; and that the person of the king should 
be entrusted to the custody of the queen, assisted by a 
council. The Parliament of Ireland acknowledged the 
claim of the prince to the regency, without any restriction. 
In this awkward predicament, and before Pitt's scheme became 
law, the king recovered his intellects, and his restoration to 
health was celebrated by a general thanksgiving. 

In the year 1789, the eventful career of the French Revo- 
lution had commenced, which in its progress dissolved all 
the political relations of Europe. Louis XI commenced the 
degradation of the French nobility, which Cardinal de Rich- 
elieu, under Louis XIII completed. During the reign of the 
arrogant and ambitious Louis XIV, these men, whose ances- 
tors had been the pride of France, dwindled into the mere 
pageants of a court. As the political ascendancy of the 
nobles decreased, the political importance of the people 
increased. The general spread of information among the lat- 
ter, the example of England, the licentious spirit of the 
writers of the age, to whose talents that liberty of the press 
was granted which the laws denied, created a feeling of dis- 
content, and contempt for the government. Louis XVI suc- 
ceeded to a throne which he was not fitted to fill at so difficult 
a crisis. The people daily presumed more and more upon 
their own power and the weakness of the king. They pro- 
ceeded from one aggression to another, till, having run 



328 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 

through every form of anarchy and revolution, they aston- 
ished all Europe by the unholy sacrifice of their good and 
benevolent monarch. Louis XVI, and his queen, Marie 
Antoinette, expired upon the scaffold in the year 1792. The 
news of this event no sooner reached England, than the 
French ambassador was ordered to quit the country within 
eight days. War was immediately declared by the French 
Convention against England and Holland. The Duke of 
York was sent to assist the Dutch. His proceedings were 
unsuccessful ; and in the year 1794. England was alarmed 
by a report that the enemy intended to invade the island. 
A treaty was entered into with Prussia ; the army was aug- 
mented ; and supplies of twenty-three millions were voted, 
one-half to be raised by loan. An expedition to the West 
Indies under Sir Charles Grey (father of the present Earl 
Grey,) and Sir John Jervis reduced Martinique, St. Lucia and 
other islands ; in the Mediterranean, the French were driven 
from Corsica ; while the victory of Lord Howe over the 
French, off Brest, on the 1st of June, severely injured their 
navy. The French, in spite of these successes, were success- 
ful in the general campaign. The Kings of Prussia and Spain 
now deserted the allies, and made the best terms they were 
able with the French. 

The supplies for the year 1796 amounted to nearly thirty- 
eight millions, of which upward of twenty-five millions and 
a half were borrowed. Several of the Dutch settlements in 
the East Indies were subdued ; but, on the other hand, Na- 
poleon Bonaparte having nearly driven the Austrians out of 
Italy, the British were under the necessity of abandoning 
Corsica. The French generals, Moreau and Jourdon, also 
penetrated into the heart of Germany, but were fortunately 
driven back by the Archduke Charles. The French being 
now disencumbered of all other adversaries, turned their 
arms in a more direct manner against the British Empire. 
An immense army was assembled on the sea-coast, under the 
command of Bonaparte, for the invasion of England. Every 



GEORGE III. 329 

preparation was made to resist the effort : the militia and 
navy were increased ; volunteer corps armed ; and the sup- 
plies augmented to thirty-five millions. The successes of 
Bonaparte had already created in his mind ambitious projects, 
hostile to the republic of France. Aware that the time for 
their execution had not yet arrived, and fearful of being for- 
gotten by the people when unemployed, he suggested an ex- 
pedition against the colonies of the British Empire in India. 
The government, dazzled at the splendor of the design, and 
glad to free themselves of one who was becoming a formida- 
ble rival, adopted his suggestion, and commenced prepara- 
tions by tampering with the fidelity of the treacherous 
Tippoo Sultan. The weakness of the French navy rendered 
a direct attack on India unsafe ; it was therefore agreed that 
Bonaparte should be sent with an army to seize on and colo- 
nize Egypt ; and thus to open a road through the country, 
by the Red Sea, to the British territories in Asia. Bonaparte, 
with an immense armament, suddenly started from Toulon ; 
and before his destination was suspected in Great Britain, the 
impregnable fortress of Malta, betrayed the constituted author- 
ities and surrendered to him. He quickly departed thence, 
landed safely near Alexandria, and, by the battle of the Pyr- 
amids, made himself master of Egypt. Admiral Nelson had 
closely pursued the fleet commanded by Admiral Brueys, 
which conveyed the French army, and fell in with it in the 
bay of Aboukir, where a furious engagement took place. 
There was no striking disparity between the forces, but the 
French admiral had the advantage in position. After a 
fiercely-contested battle, which lasted twenty hours, Nelson 
obtained one of the most complete victories recorded, and 
established beyond all competition, the fame of the British 
navy. All the magnificent array of the French, with the ex- 
ception of two shattered ships, was utterly destroyed, or 
remained in the hands of the British : thirty thousand French 
seamen were sent on shore, and five thousand perished : 
while Nelson's loss in killed and wounded did not exceed one 



330 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

thousand. Bonaparte, nothing daunted by being thus com- 
pletely isolated from France, determined on the conquest of 
Syria : traversing the desert which divides Africa from Asia, 
he reduced the fortresses of El-Arish aud Gaza, took posses- 
sion of Jaffa by storm, and then attacked the town of St. 
Jean d'Acre, on which depended the fate of the East, from 
which, after a siege of sixty-six days, the heroic exertions of 
Sir Sidney Smith, and the courage of the British sailors and 
marines, made him retire with loss. While Bonaparte was 
thus wasting his strength in Asia, the French arms were 
attended with reverses in all quarters. In the midst of 
her difficulties Napoleon returned ; and his first act was to 
overthrow the constitution of nis country, and establish a 
consular government, of which he placed himself at the 
head. 

The Austrian army in Italy, commanded by General Autas, 
followed up its success by besieging Geneva, and pushing 
through Nice into the ancient French territory (1800.) Na- 
poleon seeing the difficulties that surrounded France, assem- 
bled an immense army at Dijou, and crossed the Alps, by 
the Great St. Bernard, into the Milanese territory; and on 
the I4th of June, utterly defeated the Austrians at Marengo. 
In Germany, also, the Austrians were routed with great loss 
at Hohenlinden, by Moreau, who afterward advanced within 
seventeen leagues of Vienna. Austria sued for peace, which 
was concluded at Luneville ; and France extended her boun- 
dary to the Rhine. 

The Emperor Paul had entered into a close alliance with 
France, whilst the Danes, Swedes, and Prussians, formed an 
armed confederacy, for evading the rights claimed in war by 
maritime states, of preventing their enemies from being sup- 
plied with naval stores by means of neutral vessels. To 
prevent the active cooperation of Denmark with Russia, and, 
if possible, to break up the confederacy, a fleet was sent 
against Copenhagen, under the command of Sir Hyde Parker, 
assisted by Lord Nelson. After having passed the Sound 



- GEORGE III. S31 

with little difficulty, he almost annihilated the formidable 
lines of the Danish defense : after a desperate action of five 
hours, Nelson agreed to an armistice for fourteen weeks, Den- 
mark engaging to suspend all proceedings under the treaty 
of armed neutrality. The murder of the extraordinary and 
versatile Paul shortly broke up the confederacy ; and his 
son and successor, Alexander, entered into an alliance with 
Great Britain. 

The year 1802 was marked by the peace of Amiens, which 
was of but short duration. England beheld with increasing 
jealousy the continental encroachments of Bonaparte, now 
raised to the dignity of First Consul for life. The annexation 
of Piedmont to the French territory, the invasion of Swit- 
zerland, and the mission of Colonel Sebastiani to Egypt and 
Syria, for purposes evidently of a war-like character, too 
clearly indicated that the ambition of the ruler of France was 
not yet satisfied ; and the war reopened vigorously on both 
sides. Napoleon poured his troops into Germany and Italy : in 
the former district Marshal Mortier overran Hanover, and 
compelled the princes of the north of Germany to close their 
ports against the English : in the latter, St. Cyr occupied 
Naples. On the other hand, the English fleet rapidly recon- 
quered various colonies surrendered back to France, cap- 
tured the island of St. Domingo, and blockaded the mouth of 
the principal rivers from which their trade was excluded. 

During the progress of the French wars, Spain had, for- 
getful of her ancient dignity, degenerated into a subservient 
and degraded ally of France, purchasing tranquility by the 
payment of a large annua] contribution. Mr. Pitt, looking 
on this as a condition contrary to real neutrality, determined 
to intercept the means which enabled her to discharge this 
disgraceful tribute — her treasure ships from America ; and, 
on the 5th of October, three Spanish frigates laden with val- 
uable supplies, were captured by a British squadron. This 
decisive act led to an immediate declaration of war by 
Spain, and her fleets were placed at the command of Napoleon. 
14* 



332 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The combined fleets of France and Spain proceeded to 
menace the English West Indian possessions, (1805) but being 
closely pursued by Lord Nelson, they wisely commenced a 
homeward voyage. In this, however, they were encountered 
by another British squadron, commanded by Sir R. Calder, 
and defeated. The enemy escaping, Calder was severely 
censured for not having improved his success more signally. 
The united fleets then made their way to Cadiz, while Nelson, 
having obtained accurate intelligence of their motions, took 
the command in the Mediterranean, and lay watching for the 
moment in which they should be tempted to make another 
egress. At length the French and Spanish fleet, to the num- 
ber of thirty-three sail of the line, commanded by Admirals 
Villeneuve and Gravina, left Cadiz on the 19th of October, 
and, on the morning of the 21st, came in sight of the British 
fleet, consisting of twenty-seven sail, off Cape Trafalgar. 
Nelson, hoisting the memorable signal, " England expects 
every man to do his duty," attacked his opponents in two 
columns, the windward being led by himself, the leeward by 
Admiral Collingwood, and broke the array at the onset. After 
a dreadful engagement of three hours, the English obtained 
a decisive victory ; nineteen ships of the line were taken ; 
and of those Spanish vessels which had taken flight, seven 
were rendered unserviceable ; while four of the French, on 
their way to the Straits, were captured, off Cape Ortegal, by 
Sir R. Strachan. 

But, on the continent of Europe, the course of public affairs 
was very different. An alliance had been signed at St. Pe- 
tersburgh by England, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Naples, 
to restore the independence of Holland and Switzerland, to 
free the north of Germany from French troops, and to procure 
the evacuation of Italy. No sooner was Napoleon apprised 
of this, than the French army, in six divisions, amounting to 
one hundred and forty thousand men, advanced to the Rhine, 
and found an easy entrance into Germany ; and having sur- 
rounded the Austrians under General Mack, at Ulm, obliged 



GEORGE III. 333 

them to surrender unconditionally. Napoleon then ad- 
vanced to Vienna, crossed the Danube, proceeded northward, 
and at Austerlitz, a village in Moravia, on the 2d of Decem- 
ber, defeated the emperors of Russia and Austria, at the 
head of their respective troops. This battle, the most glo- 
rious of all Napoleon's victories, compelled the Emperor 
Francis again to sue for peace ; and, by one blow, broke up 
the coalition. Naples shortly followed the example of Austria. 
On the 23d of January, 1800, after a lingering illness, died 
Mr. Pitt, at the age of forty- seven. Mr. Fox, who suc- 
ceeded him, did not long continue in office; he died on the 
13th of August, to the great sorrow of his party. His friend, 
Mr. Grey, afterward Lord Howick, and now Earl Grey, 
succeeded him as Secretary of State. 

Napoleon now entered openly on the system of cansolidat- 
ing his own power, by warding France with dependent mon- 
archies ; from the depths of Germany he had announced that 
the dynasty of Naples had ceased to reign : this ominous 
declaration did not long remain a dead letter. Fifty thou- 
sand troops entered the Neapolitan territory ; and before the 
middle of April, Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed king of 
Naples, a position from which the skillful victory of Sir J. 
Stuart, over the French at Maida in Calabrta, was unable 
to drive him. The complete enslavement of the Batavian 
Republic followed, and the senate were compelled to ask 
Louis Bonaparte for their king. 

1807. The Emperor Alexander made preparations for a 
vigorous campaign ; and Prussia, having renounced all pre- 
tentions to Hanover, had her exertions invigorated by pecu- 
niary grants, and large supplies of arms and stores from Eng- 
land. The indecisive battle of Eylau obliged the French to 
repass the Vistula, which they had crossed ; but the fall of 
Dantzic recompensed the emperor for his reverse ; whilst the 
total defeat of the Russians at Friedland obliged Alexander, 
by the treaty of Tilsit, to consent to the spoliation of Prussia ; 
the erection of the kingdom of Westphalia, over which 



334 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Jerome Bonaparte was called to preside ; and to connive at 
the encroachments of Napoleon. Peace, at the expense of 
more than one-third part of his dominions, was granted by 
the conqueror to the king of Prussia. The dominion of Na- 
poleon was now almost universal ; Russia appeared no 
longer to belong to Europe, Prussia was overthrown, Ger- 
many fettered to France, French princes were on the thrones 
of Holland and Italy, and from the Pyrenees to the Vistula, 
French dominion swayed, and French armies kept all in 
subjection. 

The victory of Trafalgar and the subsequent occurrences, 
having deprived France of any power able to cope with the 
British navy, Napoleon conceived the plan of excluding 
English goods and manufactures from the continent. 

It was soon discovered that Russia had adopted the alli- 
ance of Napoleon, to an extent far beyond what had appeared 
on the face of the treaty of Tilsit ; that he had agreed to 
place himself at the head of a general confederation of the 
northern maritime powers against the supremacy of England ; 
and that Denmark was equipping a fleet to support the coa- 
lition. A powerful armament, under Admiral Lord Gambier 
and General the Earl of Cathcart, was therefore directed to 
proceed to the Sound, and there to await the negotiations 
which had been entered into at Copenhagen. The British 
envoy demanded the delivery of the Danish fleet to England, 
under a solemn engagement for its restoration at the close of 
the war. The Danes refused ; the British troops were landed 
and Copenhagen invested by sea and land, and a heavy fire 
was opened on the city. The Danish government, in des- 
pair, entered into a capitulation : the citadel, dock-yard, and 
batteries, were surrendered ; and the whole fleet, consisting 
of eighteen ships of the line, besides frigates and small craft, 
and all articles of naval equipment, were given up. 

Portugal, allied for upwards of a century with England, 
was now the only continental kingdom where British influ- 
ence was paramount. She was informel that she must either 



GEORGE III. 335 

shut her ports to England, or expose herself to war with 
France and Spain. Portugal temporized ; Napoleon made 
preparations for occupying that country, weak even to help- 
lessness, and a secret treaty between France and Spain, for 
the partition of Portugal, was signed at Fontainebleau. A 
French and Spanish army, commanded by Junot, marched 
against Lisbon. The Prince Begent made every degrading 
submission which France dictated ; but it was now too late : 
Napoleon declared that " the house of Braganza had ceased 
to reign ;" and that unfortunate prince, after having appointed 
a regency, with the royal family, abandoned his European 
possessions, and proceeded in a British fleet to his Brazilian 
dominions, there to await the course of events ; and Junot 
occupied Lisbon without opposition. The throne of Spain 
and the Indies was at this time declared to be vacant in con- 
sequence of a quarrel between King Charles and his son 
Ferdinand, and conferred by a degree of the Emperor, in 
opposition to his own wishes, on his brother Joseph, King of 
Naples, who had for his successor, in that kingdom, Murat, 
formerly Duke of Berg. A constitution, similar to the 
French, was given to Spain, and the new king was sent for- 
ward to Madrid to take possession of the throne. 

These occurrences filled the mind of every Spaniard with 
the deepest indignation. The people in every province 
fiercely proclaimed resistance to French invasion ; local jun- 
tas were formed, and insurgent armies every-whcre started 
up. The legitimate government was reinstated, and great 
preparations were made for completing the work so glori- 
ously begun. England having declared her war with Spain 
to be at an end, deputies were sent to solicit aid from the 
British Government. Meantime, the flames of insurrection 
had spread to Portugal; the inhabitants rose against Junot, 
and united with the Spaniards in asserting their independence. 
The enthusiasm for the Spanish cause, and the sympathy in 
the instinct and principle by which it was carried on, rose 
to the highest pitch among all classes in the British Empire, 



336 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and the government determined to give more effective assist- 
ance than money and supplies. With this view, Sir Arthur 
Wellesley, an officer who had acquired a high military repu- 
tation in India, with an armament of ten thousand men, 
sailed for the Peninsula. By the successes of the combined 
troops, the French were compelled to evacuate Portugal, but 
on terms which excited considerable indignation in this 
country. 

Portugal being thus freed from the invader, it was deter- 
mined that the British army there, now entrusted to Sir John 
Moore, should be sent to act in the north of Spain, to aid 
the exertions of the Spaniards ; and this force was strength- 
ened by a fresh supply of troops from England. It was 
soon discovered that this expedition had been ordered on fal- 
lacious and exaggerated impressions entertained in England 
with regard to the supposed resources and enthusiasm of the 
Spaniards. Sir John Moore, after doing all that a brave 
soldier could do, was compelled to retreat, and by his skill- 
ful maneuvers, succeeded in getting his army safely embarked 
after repelling the attack of the French at the fatal battle of 
Corunna, in which he lost his life. 

Sir Arthur Wellesley was restored to the command of the 
British army in the Peninsula, and having defeated Soult, 
under the walls of Oporto, and obliged him to make a pre- 
cipitate retreat, he effected a junction with a Spanish army 
under Cuesta, in Andalusia, and marched along the Tagus 
toward the position of Marshal Victor. The French general, 
with nearly double the force of the combined army, attacked 
the allies on the 28th of July, at Talavera. After an unu- 
sually severe battle, the French were totally defeated and 
repulsed. Notwithstanding this success, Wellesley, created 
Viscount Wellington, for his skill and bravery at Talavera, 
found it necessary to retire to Badajos, a town on the frontier 
of Spain, in order to prevent the other French divisions from 
coming between him and Portugal ; and there the British 
remained during the rest of the vear. 



GEORGE III. 337 

A. D. 1810. Lord Wellington now became convinced that 
all effectual cooperation with the Spanish army was useless. 
Portugal was now completely in his hands ; being determined 
that it should not follow the example of Spain, he enforced 
a military organization under a regular system, by which the 
whole physical and moral condition of the nation was ren- 
dered subservient to the plan of the commander-in-chief; 
thirty thousand native troops were raised and disciplined 
under the direction of Marshal Beresford. To oppose these 
forces, and to expel the British from the entire Peninsula, 
Napoleon sent Massena, second only to himself in repu- 
tation, at the head of 100,000 men, to penetrate into Portu- 
gal. 

The limited strength of Lord Wellington's forces, barely 
one-half that of Massena, necessarily confined his operations 
to the defensive. After wintering in Portugal, the British 
moved northward as the spring advanced ; and the English 
commander saw, without the means of prevention, the French 
marshal, after taking the strong positions of Oviedo and 
Ciudad Rodrigo, advance into Portugal. Lord Wellington 
retired before him with coolness and precision, but deter- 
mined to embrace the first opportunity of fighting him on 
favorable ground. This occurred when occupying the hights 
of Busaco, directly in face of the enemy ; here Massena, 
confident of success, attacked his opponents and was driven 
back with terrible carnage, leaving five thousand men killed 
or wounded on the mountains. After this, the allied army 
retreated before the enemy by easy marches and in perfect 
order, laying the Gountry waste, and inspiring the peasantry 
with courage by their steadiness and admirable discipline. 
In this manner Lord Wellington retired as he had previously 
determined, within the lines of Torres Vedras, a formidable 
position to the north of Lisbon, extending about twelve 
leagues between the sea and the Tagus. The French gen- 
eral was reduced to inactivity, and at length, commenced 
his retreat toward Spain, pursued by Lord Wellington, 



338 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

whose arms were attended with success in every engagement 
that was fought during the pursuit of the enemy. 

The king was this year seized with a renewal of his 
mental indisposition, and all recovery being hopeless, the 
Prince of Wales was appointed Regent, with very restricted 
powers; and the care of the royal person was intrusted to the 
queen. 

Lord Wellington (1812) lost no time in commencing the 
campaign. Taking advantage of a moment when Marmont, 
who had replaced Massena, had detached part of his troops, 
he invested Ciudad Rodrigo on the 8th of January, and car- 
ried it by storm on the 19th, before Marmont could march to 
its relief. Wellington then appeared suddenly before Bada- 
jos in the south, and in twenty days was master also of that 
strong fortress ; Soult just arriving in time to see the British 
flag mounted on the towers. The English general having 
impeded the communication between Soult and Marmont by 
destroying the bridge of boats over the Tagus at Almaraz, 
marched in June to Salamanca, took the forts which the 
French had constructed in that city, and pursued Marmont 
to the Douro. The French general having been reinforced, 
Wellington retired in his turn, and on the 21st of July both 
armies lay in full view of each other on two opposite rising 
grounds near Salamanca. Next morning the great battle of 
Salamanca was fought, and the French evacuated Andalu- 
sia, Granada, and all the south of Spain. 

About the middle of the year, ministerial changes were 
rendered indispensable by the assassination of the premier, 
Mr. Perceval, in the lobby of the House of Commons, by a 
merchant named Bellingham, and Lord Liverpool was ap- 
pointed first Lord of the Treasury. In the year 1813, the 
French general in Spain, compelled to retire before the supe- 
rior abilities of Wellington, at last took up a position at 
Vittoria, a town in Biscay. Here Wellington attacked them 
on the 21st of June, and King Joseph and Jourdan sustained 
a total defeat, and were in consequence obliged to retreat 



GEORGE III. 339 

across the Pyrenees. The reverses of Napoleon were not 
confined to Spain and France. Austria and Sweden joined 
the northern coalition, and the war became more and more 
popular in Germany. The armies of the French received 
their final overthrow at the terrible battle of Leipsic. The 
French territory was left exposed to the assembled troops of 
the allies, who took possession of Paris on the 30th of March, 
1814, restored Louis XVIII, and allowed Napoleon to retain 
his title of emperor, with the sovereignty of the little island 
of Elba, on the coast of Italy. 

It was now necessary that the different kingdoms of Europe 
should be restored, as nearly as possible, to their former 
footing. While a Congress at Vienna was sitting for that 
purpose, the allies were astonished to hear that Bonaparte 
had again returned to France, and that Louis XVIII had fled 
before him. An army composed of British, German, and 
Prussian forces, was assembled with the utmost speed in the 
Netherlands, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon 
also made his preparations with equal activity, and pressed for- 
ward across the French boundaries with 135,000 men. The 
forces, under the command of Wellington, amounting to 
seventy-five thousand men, thirty-five thousand of whom 
only were British, covered Brussels; while Blucher's army, 
numbered at about 100,000 men, occupied Charleroi, Namur, 
Givet, and Liege. Napoleon resolved, with equal science 
and daring, first to attack the concentrated Prussian army, 
and by their overthrow, to cut off all communication between 
nis two enemies, and compel each to seek safety in isolated 
and unconnected movements. Accordingly, Blucher was 
attacked at Ligny, on the 16th of June, and after a bold 
resistance, was forced to retreat to Wavre ; and about the 
same time Ney, with forty- five thousand men, forming the left 
division of the French army, risked an action with the 
advanced division of the Anglo-Belgian army, under the 
Prince of Orange and Sir Thomas Picton, at Quatre Bras, 
Wellington withdrew his army to the plains of Waterloo, 
15 



S40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and having received an assurance from Blucher that he would 
bring up his whole force, determined to accept battle. 

On the 18th of June was fought the ever-memorable battle 
of Waterloo. After a hard conflict, which lasted the whole 
day, the French were broken and utterly defeated, and the 
Prussians coming up carried on the pursuit during the whole 
night. The victorious armies advanced toward Paris without 
meeting any serious obstacle. Napoleon seeing all hope of 
ultimate success at an end, once more abdicated the throne, 
and fled to Rochfort in order to escape to America ; here, 
after many useless attempts, he surrendered to Captain Mait- 
land of the Bellcrophon, and was conveyed with his retinue 
to Plymouth. According to the resolution of the allied pow- 
ers, he was afterward sent to the island of St. Helena in the 
Atlantic, and was detained there as a prisoner of war till his 
death. 

In the year 1820, the Duke of Kent, after a short illness, 
died, leaving an infant daughter, Princess Alexandrina Victo- 
ria, the present reigning sovereign. On the 29th of January, 
six days after the demise of the Duke, his majesty, after nine 
years of both mental and physical blindness, expired at Wind- 
sor Castle, in the 82d year of his age, after a reign of sixty 
years, full of memorable events, and marked by great changes 
both in the moral and territorial condition of Great Britain. 
Posterity are perhaps alone capable of passing a correct judg- 
ment on this reign, or the character of the monarch, and to 
them therefore it must be reserved. 



GEOKGE IV. 341 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

GEORGE IV. 

Born 1752— Began to reign 1820— Died 1830— Reigned ten years. 

In the year 1820, George IV succeeded to his father's throne. 
The whole of Europe now had rest from the wars whicli had 
so long agitated it ; and the affairs of Britain, whether internal 
or external, experienced no change from the accessions of a 
monarch, who had already for many years governed the king- 
dom as regent. The ten years of the reign of this king were 
disturbed by no wars of any importance; and the nation 
released from foreign troubles, began to turn its attention to 
the redress of grievances, and the arrangement of matters 
which required investigation from within. The events of tho 
reign are still too recent for history to speak with impartiality. 
The conspiracy of Thistlewood ; the trial of the queen, Caro- 
line Amelia Augusta of Brunswick, for adultery ; the emanci- 
pation of the Catholics; and the progresses of the king to 
Scotland, Ireland, and Hanover, are the most prominent 
events which occurred in this reign. The king's only daughter, 
the Princess Charlotte of Wales, born January 7, 179G, was 
married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the present king 
of the Belgians. She died in November, 181*7. The death 
of the Duke of York, who, as second brother to the king, 
would have succeeded him on the throne, made way for the 
accession of the late sovereign, William IV, on the 25th of 
June, a. d. 1830. 



342 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

WILLIAM IV. 

Bora 1765 — Began to reign 1830 — Died 1837 — Reigned seven years. 

This reign commenced under, perhaps, the most popular 
auspices of any king who ever swayed the British scepter. 
It is said that it was his frankness of countenance, and behav- 
ior in his childhood and youth, that induced his father to devote 
him to the naval service. In personal bravery he did not 
appear to surpass either of his brothers, but in corporeal 
strength and hardihood there was a striking distinction in his 
favor, while he betrayed an indifference to the more refining 
studies of which they were fond, and in which they rapidly 
excelled him. Aware of the subordinate rank and laborious 
station he was first to assume, and to continue for the full 
period allotted to other midshipmen, he was eager for its 
commencement, and reconciled to the continuance of the 
arduous undertaking. 

The first vessel in which he sailed was the Prince George, 
a ninety-eight gun ship, and named in honor of his royal 
brother. He was then fourteen years of age, and well fitted 
for the service, to which the war with America gave unusual 
importance. The ship was commanded by Admiral Digby, 
and bore apart in the great naval engagement between the 
English and Spanish fleets, commanded by Admiral Rodney 
and Don Juan de Langara. 

After Lord Rodney's victory, when the Spanish Admiral 
wished to return to his own ship, Prince William, as mid- 
shipman, came to announce that the boat was ready, on 
which the Don, lifting up his eyes with amazement, exclaimed, 
"Well may England be mistress of the ocean, when the 
sons of her king are thus employed in her service." 



WILLIAM IV. 343 

After passing through the regular duties of midshipman, 
lieutenant, and captain, his royal highness, at the close of 
the year 1790, received a commission as rear-admiral of the 
blue, having been, about eighteen months previously, made a 
peer of England, Scotland, and Ireland, by the titles of Duke 
of Clarence and St. Andrew, and Earl of Munster. 

In 1*790, when the conduct of the Spaniards at Nootka 
Sound seemed to render a war inevitable, he was nominated 
to the command of the Valiant, of seventy-four guns ; and on 
the 3rd December of the same year, advanced to the rank of 
rear-admiral. By subsequent promotions he had become 
an admiral of the red ; when, on the death of Sir Peter Parker, 
in December, 1811, he succeeded that veteran officer as 
admiral of the fleet. 

The Duke of Clarence, in April, 1814, was appointed to 
escort Louis XVIII to his native country, on his restoration 
to the throne. 

On the 11th of July, 1818, his royal highness was married 
to her serene highness, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa 
Caroline, Princess of Saxe Meiningen, eldest daughter of his 
serene highness the late reigning Duke of Saxe Meiningen. 
The first issue of this marriage was a daughter, born March 
2*7, 1819, who survived but a few hours, and another born in 
1820, who was christened Elizabeth, as a name dear to Eng- 
lishmen, but when about three months old, was seized by a 
fatal illness, and suddenly expired. 

The Duke of Clarence having become presumptive heir to 
the Crown on the demise of his royal highness the Duke of 
York, in 182*7, his income was increased to nearly £40,000 
per annum, by an additional parliamentary grant, and was 
appointed in the same year to the honor and authority of the 
office of lord high admiral, an appointment which had been 
in abeyance for nearly a century — a station he resigned during 
the administration of the Duke of Wellington, which succeeded 
to that of Mr. Canning. On the death of George IV, in June, 
1830, he at first retained his brother's ministers. 



344 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

On the 23d of July, Parliament was dissolved, and met in 
the following November, when the ministers, being left in a 
minority on a question connected with the civil list, immedi- 
ately resigned, and Lord Grey accepted the premiership, stip- 
ulating for parliamentary reform being made a cabinet ques- 
tion. A reform bill was accordingly brought into the House 
of Commons on the first of March, 1831, the opposition to 
which led to the dissolution of the House. It would carry us, 
however, far beyond our limits to follow out the history of 
this measure, during the progress of which the king conducted 
himself in the many trying situations in which it placed him, 
with great firmness, moderation, and propriety, and the meas- 
ure, as is well known, was ultimately carried, to the satisfac- 
tion of the nation. His reign, though short, has been in 
many other respects an eventful one. 

In his kingly intercourse, as well as in his domestic associ- 
ations, he was condescending and kind-hearted, and as a truly 
British patriot king, his memory will be long and deservedly 
cherished by his people. 

He died on the 20th of June, 1837, and is succeeded by 
her present most gracious majesty, Queen Victoria, daughter 
of the late Duke of Kent, the fourth son of King George III. 
She was born at Kensington, 24th May, 1819, but seven 
months before her father's lamented demise. 



QUESTIONS ON HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 



Examination on every Chapter should begin with questions of the dates at the 
head of it, 

CHAPTER I. 

Sec. I. By whom was the island of Great Britain originally peopled? What was 
its chief product? From whom do we obtain the earliest accounts of Britain? When 
did Julius Caesar first land there? Narrate that campaign. Mention the way in 
which the Britons then lived. What was their religion ? Who were the Druids ? 

Sec. IT. How long after the departure of Caesar did the Britons remain independ- 
ent? What attempts in the meanwhile ? Who renewed the invasion ? What success 
had he? Who was Boadieca? Narrate the events of her war with the Romans. 
Who carried the Koman dominion to its utmost extent in Britain? How was the 
Roman domiuion in Britain weakened? When were the Roman arms finally with- 
drawn? When was Christianity first introduced ? What is stated of Constan tine ? 



CHAPTER II. 

ANGLO SAXON PERIOD. 

Sec. 1. What occurred after the withdrawal of the Romans? Who were the Saxons? 
State how they were first brought to Britain. In what part did they first settle? 
Who was their first king? Give an account of their further conquests? How many 
kingdoms did they establish? Who introduced Christianity among them ? Who uni- 
ted the Anglo Saxon kingdoms? At what date? What is the character of this period 
Of English history? What is said of the Danes? What became of the old Britons? 

Sec. IT. What was the state of the country at the accession of Alfred ? What is 
said of Alfred's youth? His first campaign against the Danes? His adversity? Give 
an account of the rest of his reign? What is said of his character, and what he did 
for his country? Who succeeded Alfred? What is said of the successor of Edward? 
When was the Bible first translated into Saxon ? 

Sec. III. Mention the succession? What is said of the reign of Edrcd? What of 
Edwy ? What of Edgar's reign ? 

Sec. TV. What took place upon his death ? What became of Ed. ? What was 
he surnamed ? Relate the principal events in the reign of Ethelred. Who was his 
successor? Who contested the crown with him? Give account of Canute and his 
reign. What is said of his sons? Who was the lawful heir of the Saxon line ? 

Sec. V. What is said of Edward the Confessor? What of his successor? What of 
William cf Normandy? What forces did he bring into England? Give an account of 
the battle of Hastings. How long had the Saxon dominion continued ? What is the 
date of the longest? What is said of the Saxon government? Their administration 

(345) 



346 QUESTIONS. 

of justice? What is said of their language? What of their literature? What of 
society among them? Of their agriculture? Of their naval affairs? 



CHAPTER III. 

State what William did immediately after the battle of Hastings. How did he re- 
ward his Barons? Bid he extend any favor to any of the Saxons; and to whom? 
What precautions did he take? Bid any insurrections hreak out? How did he sup- 
press them? How did William treat the English afterward? What was the curfew ? 
What was the doomsday hook ? For what is the nation indebted to him ? Relate the 
occasion of his visiting Normandy. Mention his death and distribution of his 
dominions. 



CHAPTER IV. 

What occurred upon the accession of his successor? What is said of Feter the 
Hermit? What Pope supported the movement? Who was one of the earliest pro- 
selytes to the sacred cause? What did he do to defray his expenses? What was the 
character of William's government? Give an account of his death. What is said of 
the English during his reign? Who was his successor? When did he begin to reign 1 



. CHAPTER V. 

How did Henry seenre the throne? What served him as a pretext for invading Nor- 
mandy ? What became of his brother Robert? What use was made of Robert's son 
by the French King? Give au account of the wreck of '"the white ship.'' What 
arrangements did Henry make for his successor? What of his character? 



CHAPTER VI. 

When did Stephen begin to rei^n? How long did bo reign? How did he obtain the 
throne ? What lost him the support of the clergy ? Relate Matilda's invasion of 
England and its result ? AYhat defeated her plans? What other opponent arose against 
Stephen? What treaty was entered into by them? What remarks are made regarding 
Stephen's reign? 



CHAPTER VII. 

What is said of the parentage of Henry II.? When did he begin to reign? How 
long did he reign? Mention the extent of his domain. What is said of the commence- 
ment of his reign? How did he check the power of the nobles ? How did he infuse a 
spirit of independence into the people? From what did his quarrel with Thomas 
aBecket arise? Narrate the history of Thomas aBecket, and the events connected 
with his death. What led to Henry's invasion of Ireland; and its result? What 
immediately followed the conquest of Ireland? What is said of Rosamond? How did 
Henry divide his dominions ? What became of his Queen ? Give account of the rebel- 
lion of his sous; and of his death. What is said of his character and reign? 



QUESTIONS. 347 

CHAPTER VIII. 

When did Richard begin to reign. Give an account of his preparations for the 
crusade. How did he obtain money ? Narrate the events of the crusade. What 
occurred on his return ? How wax Richard discovered ? How was his ransom obtained . 
How did he treat his brother John? How did he lose his life? What is said of his 
character and reign? 



CHAPTER IX. 

Give the name of Richard's successor. When he began to reign, now long he 
reigned. What declaration was made at his coronation? What crime led to the loss 
of most of his French possessions? What is stated of his quarrel with the Pope? 
Give the particulars of his submission. What effect had his conduct upon the people ? 
Give account of the resistance of the Barons; and of the signing of Magna C/iarta. 
What was the nature of that charter? What did John determine regarding it? To 
whom did the Barons offer the crown? What is said of John's character? 



CHAPTER X. 

Who was John's successor? At what age? Who was named protector? What de- 
stroyed the Dauphin's hope of the English throne? What did Henry upon becoming 
of age? What consequences followed bis marriage? What is said of the Parliament 
of Merton? Recite what is remarked of Simon de Monfort; and of the council at Ox- 
ford. Who was chosen arbitrator between the King and the Barons? Did the Barons 
submit? Give account of the battle of Lewes, and of Leicester's popular measures. 
What constituted the first outline of the English House of Commons? What is stated 
of the battle of Evesham ? What was the reputation of Leicester with the people? 
Recite what is stated of the death and character of Henry III. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Give the circumstances attendant upon the accession of Edward I. How did he se- 
cure the affection of the people? Relate the events of the conquest of Wales. How 
did the heirs apparent to the crown of England become Princes of Wales? What was 
the tendency of the Statutes of Westminster? What led to the war with Scotland? 
Give account of the first war. How did Edward treat the Scotch? Give account of 
the resistance under Wallace. What caused Edward's third campaign against Scot- 
land? Where did he die? What remarks are made of him and his reign? 



CHAPTER XII. 

Of the character of Edward II. ? Recite what is related of Gaveston. now did his 
attempt to reconquer Scotland turn out ? Narrate the events of the rebellion, and 
connected with the King's death. What important change in the legislature took 
place in this reign? 



348 QUESTIONS. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Recite what is said of the accession of Edward III. Why did he determine to 
bring Mortimer to punishment? How was that inflicted? How did Edward treat his 
mother? What was the rule which he made the guide of his reign? Mention his 
campaign into Scotland. On what claim did he invade France? Recite the events of 
that Invasion, and of the battle of Cressy. How was the Scotch invasion repelled? 
State what occurred at the siege of Calais. What is related of the Plague? What led 
to a new war with France? Mention the battle of Poictiers, and the events which fol- 
lowed until the death of the Black Prince. What effect had the death of the Prince 
upon the English dominion in France? How long did Edward III. survive his son? 
What is said of the reign of Edward III. ? What celebrated reformer flourished in this 
reign ? In what state was Euglish commerce ? What was the principal export ? How 
was the woolen manufacture introduced? What is stated of the navy? What of the 
language of England? What of the literature of the previous time ? Name some of 
the literary men of the reign of Edward III. What is said of learning? What of 
social life ? What of Slavery ? 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Repeat what is related of the succession. Who were appointed regents? Did the 
Barons take advantage of the King's minority? What was the King's disposition? 
What led to the insurrection of Wat Tyler? Slate the events of that insurrection. 
For what are the next five years remarkable? How did Richard declare himself of ago 
to govern? What is recorded of the disciples of Wycliffe? What caused Richard's 
overthrow? Mention the series of events until the death of Richard. Recite what is 
further said of the nature of his reign. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Explain the nature of Henry's claim to the throne. Who disturbed his govern- 
ment? Where did he march ? How was the Scotch invasion repelled? Narrate the 
revolt of the Percies. What afterward became of the Duke of Northumberland ? How 
were the remaiuiug years of Henry's reign occupied? What is told of the Prince of 
Wales? What of the death and character of Henry IV.? What was the progress of 
the reformation doctrines? How were they opposed? Da what respect were the pri- 
vileges of the House of Commons augmented ? 



CHAPTER XVI. 

What had been the character of Henry V. in youth ? Did he renounce his indiscre- 
tions on becoming king? When did he come to the throne? What was the progress 
of the reformation? AVhat efforts were made to stop it? By what was Henry induced 
to invade France? Relate the events of that invasion. Describe the battle of Agin 
court. What treaty did Henry enter into with the French King? When did he die? 
What is said of his character and reign? 



QUESTIONS. 349 

CHAPTER XVII. 

How old was Henry VI. at liis father's death? Who was appointed Protector of 
England? To whom was the King's education trusted? Relate what is mentioned 
after the death of Charles VI. until the appearance of Joan of Arc. What is told of 
that heroine? When were the English expelled from France? What places did they 
still hold? After the death of Bedford who was sole ruler of England? What be- 
came of him? Give account of the insurrection of Jack Cade. Explain the cause of 
the wars of the Roses. Why so called? Who was Richard Duke of York by descent? 
What was King Henry's relationship to Edward III.? Where did the first engage- 
ment take place? What were its consequences? Was the peace of long continuance? 
What arrangement did the Parliament make? Who opposed the Duke of York? 
What became of him ? Who was now the support of the White Rose ? Who was 
again victorious ? Of what family was Edward IV. ? How did he obtain the crown ? 
Of what nature was his government? What parties were engaged in the battle of 
Towton? Which was defeated? What now became of the Red Rose party? Where 
did the Queen flee? How did Edward govern? How was Margaret employed in I he 
meanwhile? Where was she again defeated? When did she now escape? How did 
Edward offend the Earl of Warwick ? What did Warwick do? Why was he called 
"The King Maker?" Recite the events by which Edward was restored, (live account 
of Margaret's new attempt, and of the battle of Tewkesbury. What afterward becamo 
of Queen Margaret? How did Edward treat the Prince of Wales? What is said of 
the death of Henry VI.? What of his character? In his reign how many pitched 
battles were fought? What is remarked of Parliament? What art was invented in 
this reign? 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

How did Edwax-d IV. become undisturbed master of England? Did his morals now 
undergo any reform? What is said of his invasion of France? now did his Queen 
control the government? How was his party divided? Relate the ground of accusa- 
tion and death of the Duke of Clarence. What summary has been given of Edward's 
character? Who succeeded him on the throne? 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Who was appointed Regent ? Why ? How did Gloucester get the young King into 
his power? What is said of the character of Gloucester ? Whom did he lodge in the 
tower of London ? What other steps did he take to establish himself in power? Of 
what did he accuse the Queen and Jane Shore? How did he act toward Hastings? 
By what artifice did he obtain the offer of the crown? 



CHAPTER XX. 

What was Richard's first object after his coronation ? By what means did he secure 
the death of the young Princes? Did the Parliament confirm his title? Who con- 
spired against him? Of what family was the Earl of Richmond? Why was it sug- 
gested to him to marry the Princess Elizabeth? Narrate the fate of Buckingham. 
What hastened Richmond's arrival? Where did he meet Richard? Recite the ac- 
count of the battle of Bosworth. What is said of Richard's character? 



350 QUESTIONS. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

What was the nature of the title of Henry VII. to the crown ? Why did he defer 
his coronation? On what did he base his title? Whom did he request to settle it? 
Give account of the insurrection of Simnel. What became of Simnel? What other 
insurrection was put down? How were the five succeeding years spent? Recite the 
conspiracy of Perkin Warbeck. What King did he enlist in his favor? What success 
had they ? Who now invited Warbeck to head them ? Relate his succeeding fortunes. 
To what did Henry now give his attention? What connection did he form with Scot- 
land, and with Spain? In what light were these alliances important? Repeat what is 
said in connection with Henry's death. What of his person ? What were his two 
great objects? Who were his instruments? What amount of treasure was found at 
his death ? What was the effect of his policy upon the Barons ? Upon the commer- 
cial classes ? Upon the laws ? What court doctrine now began to spring up ? Bid 
Henry accept the offers of Columbus? What was the state of English commerce? 
What of manufactures? What of agriculture? What is mentioned as a consequence 
of the extinction of slavery ? Had English literature prospered since the time of Ed- 
ward III.? What authors are named? What colleges are mentioned? When was 
printing introduced into the island? What is said of the other arts, and of chivalry? 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Under what circumstances did Henry VIII. ascend the throne ? With what measures 
did he begin his reign? How was he induced to declare war against France? What 
other war did that lead to? Who won the battle of Flodden? Did any benefit result 
from it? Give account of the carcerof Cardinal Wolsey, until he became Lord Chan, 
cellor. In what style did he then live ? For what throne was Henry a candidate ? 
What is said of the meeting on "the Field of the Cloth of Cold? " By what crime was 
Wolsey's administration sullied? How long did the power of Wolsey continue una- 
bated? How was this period spent by Henry? What led to insurrections? From 
what did Wolsey's supremacy begin to decline ? What controversy was Europe now 
engaged in ? What were the remote causes of the Reformation ? What was the im- 
mediate cause? How did that become such? What is stated of indulgences? To 
whom was their sale committed? What is said of Luther? Had not the reformation 
principles been taught in England long before? By whom? What opposition was now 
made by the clergy? Which side did Henry take? Why did he receive the title "De- 
fender of the Faith? " Did he continue to defend that side of the question? Mention 
his motives. What scruples did he entertain regarding his marriage? Whom did he 
now wish to marry? To whom did he apply for a divorce? What were Wolsey's views? 
Who now united to undermine his influence ? Relate the events of his downfall ? 
What words did he utter on his death-bed ? How did Henry get himself acknowledged 
head of the English church? Who sanctioned the divorce of Catharine and marriage 
of Anne Boleyne? Who condemned both ? Why did Henry separate altogether from 
the Church of Rome? In what year was the authority of the Pope abolished in Eng- 
land? What oath did the people take ? To what doctrines did Henry adhere? Into 
what dilemma did this bring his subjects ? What ensued ? What step did the Pope 
take? How did Henry retaliate? What gave rise to the pilgrimage of grace? now 
was that suppressed ? What new passion now possessed Henry's mind? Give an ac- 
count of the accusation and execution of Anne Boleyne, and what Henry did imme- 
diately after her death. What is stated of Jane Seymour? What conspiracy was now 
discovered? By what measures did Henry attempt to regulate the religious faith of 



QUESTIONS. 351 

the nation? What were the punishments for violation of his six articles? What is 
stated of his marriage with Anne of Cleves? Mention the fate of Earl Cromwell. 
What events immediately followed? Mention the fate of Catharine Howard. Give 
instances of Henry's fickleness in religion. On the death of James V. of Scotland what 
projeet did Henry conceive? How was it defeated ? Whom did the King now marry? 
How did he now act toward the Reformers? What is related of his later days? Men- 
tion some who perished under his cruelty. What children did he leave ? What is re- 
marked of his character, and of his reign ? Mention what is stated of literature in the 
reign of Henry VJJ.I. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

Of what act of suhserviency was the legislature guilty ? Who was appointed Pro- 
tector during the minority of the young King ? Mention Somerset's act of favor to the 
Protestants. What discontents arose ? How did Somerset give dissatisfaction to some 
of the council and people? How was he overthrown? Relate the conduct of Dudley. 
How was Lady Jane Grey involved in his schemes? What did he induce the young 
King to do? What treatment did the King afterward receive? What is remarked 
of the character of Edward VI., and of his reign ? Prom what cause were the morals 
of the nation corrupted? 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

What steps were taken to confer the crown on Lady Jane Grey? Who else was 
proclaimed Queen? In what was Northumberland disappointed? What had Mary 
promised? What became of Northumberland? How did Mary commence her reign? 
Mention gome of her acts of intolerance. Whom did she marry ? What stipulation 
was made? Mention the fate of Sir Thomas Wyatt, and that of Lord Dudley and 
Lady Jane Grey. What is said of the Princess Elizabeth? What measure was 
adopted to disable the people from resistance? What did Gardiner propose? now 
was that proposition received? Relate what is further stated of Mary's marriage. 
How did she now act toward the Protestants? Who are mentioned as martyrs to 
the reformed faith? What is said of Gardiner, and of Bonner? How was Bonner 
exhorted by Mary? Mention some of the most memorable martyrs. Give an ac- 
count of the. death of Ridley and Latimer. How did the sight affect Cranmcr? At 
the place of execution how did he act? What is said of Cranmer's character? now 
many were brought to the stake during this time ? What effect had the conduct of 
Mary upon the people? In what war did she involve the country? What loss affected 
her deeply ? What are assigned as causes of her death ? What is said of her character ? 



CHAPTER XXV. 
Under whose advice did Elizabeth commence her reign? What was her first mea- 
sure? What was done on the meeting of the legislature? Who were conspiring 
against her? How did she act toward them? Who was Elizabeth's most formidable 
rival? What is stated of the Queen of Scots? In what condition was Scotland? 
Who laid their complaints before Elizabeth? How did she receive them ? What steps 
did she take? What was stipulated in the treaty of Edinburgh? Would Mary eon- 
firm the treaty? Why did Mary assume personally the government of Scotland? 



352 QUESTIONS. 

AYhat was the policy of Elizabeth then? How was the English nation divided? On 
whom did Elizabeth's security depend ? How did she treat the other parties? How 
were the Catholics supported? What is said of Ireland? Had the Reformation ex- 
tended there? What was the state of France? By what name were the French Pro- 
testants called? Who was their leader? Who were leaders of the Catholic party? 
By what means did Elizabeth attempt to withdraw Mary from her connection with 
France? Who opposed that measure ? What decided Mary's course? What is stated 
of the results of her marriage? To whom was the death of Darnley attributed? 
What followed upon the marriage of Queen Mary and Bothwell? How did Elizabeth 
regard these proceedings? How did Mary escape from Loch Leven ? What followed ? 
Where did .Mary flee? How did Elizabeth act toward her? What is said of Eliza- 
beth's support of the Protestants on the Continent ? Give account of Northumberland's 
insurrection. Of the conspiracy of the Duke of Norfolk. What is said of maritime 
discovery? Who elected Elizabeth their protector? What did the Catholic conspira- 
cies load to? Narrate the conspiracy of Ballard. Where was Mary now imprisoned? 
Give an account of her trial. What sentence was passed upon her? How did Eliza- 
beth act in the case? What did she afterward feign? What is narrated of Mary's 
death ? What forces now landed in Ireland ? Who defeated them ? What rumor had 
pervaded Europe? What did the Spaniards call their navy? When did the Ar- 
mada sail from the Tagus? Of how many ships did it consist? How many men 
were on board? How many cannon? What had Elizabeth to meet this armament? 
Manned by how many? Who had the chief command? Did Catholic Englishmen 
unite with the Protestants in this case? How was the English army disposed? Who 
commanded the Spanish Armada? Give account of the fate of the Armada. What 
did the English navy do ? Who were some of the most eminent naval commanders? 
What rendered Ireland dangerous to England? Who was appointed viceroy? Who 
subdued Ireland? What was the conduct of Essex? How did Elizabeth act toward 
him? How did he die? What effect had his death upon the Queen? Give account 
of her despondency and death. Whom did she name as her successor? What is said 
of her character? What of English navigation? Recite what is stated of agriculture. 
And of manufactures. What is stated of literature and learning ? Name some of the 
more eminent literary men. Did the fine arts cqualty prosper? What was the con- 
dition of the people? 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Was James welcome in England? With what notions was he imbued? Did his 
popularity continue long? Why not? What conspiracy was detected ? Who suffered 
on account of it? What was one of the best traits in .Tamos" character? What blow 
was meditated? Who was the contriver of it? Whom did he design to destroy? 
What means did the conspirators adopt? How was the secret brought to light? Give 
the narrative. To what did James now turn his attention? What prevented his 
success? AVhat demand did the Parliament make? Why did he summon another 
Parliament? Who was his favorite? How did Parliament receive his application for 
money? How did he retaliate? What other favorite did James now substitute for 
Carr? What is related of Sir W. Raleigh ! Into what war was James dragged? Give 
the particulars. What was now seen to be the cause of James' pacific policy toward 
Spain? Give account of Charles' journey into Spain, and its results, now did the 
Parliament view a Spanish connection? What reply did James make to their ad- 
dress ? What was the purport of the document they drew up ? How did the King 
treat it and them? Did he afterward give way? Why? What war did ho declare? 



QUESTIONS. 353 

How was that measure regarded by the nation? Relate the events of the expedition. 
Mention the circumstances of James' death. Describe his character, and the charac- 
ter of his reign. Name some of the literary men of that time. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

Under what circumstances did Charles come to the throne ? What notions had he 
of the royal prerogative? How did Parliament act? By what means did Charles 
procure money? What increased the public discontent? How did Charles diminish 
the number of popular leaders? What did he demand? What was the demand of 
the Parliament ? How did they act ? How did the King raise money ? On what occa- 
sion did John Hampden make his first stand for the Constitution? Give account of 
Buckingham's conduct in France. What was the conduct of the government at home ? 
When did the Parliament meet? What did they first do? What celebrated enact- 
ment did they pass ? How did the King act in regard to it ? At the next meeting of 
the Commons what measures did they take ? What resolution did Sir J. Elliott pro- 
pose? Describe the scene which ensued. In the meanwhile what became of Buck- 
ingham? What opinion was given by the Judges? How did Charles now determine 
to govern ? Whom did he attach to his interest ? What is said of Strafford ? What 
of Laud? How was the popular party divided? Describe those parties. What is 
said of the administration of Strafford? By what means did Charles attempt to raise 
money? Mention the case of John Hampden. What was now the power of tho 
court? Where did some of the Puritans emigrate? Who were prevented? Describe 
the movements in Scotland. What compelled Charles to summon a Parliament? 
What did he do with it? Who invaded England? How was the King compelled to 
summon another Parliament? When did that Parliament meet? What measures 
did they take ? How did the two popular parties now stand ? What administration 
did Charles now propose ? What new party arose in Parliament ? Who were its lead- 
ers? What measure did the King take? Describe his visit to the House of Com- 
mons. How was he received in the city? Did the five members return to Parlia- 
ment? How did the King act? What did the Commons proceed to? How did the 
King receive their demands? From what date did both parties appeal to arms? 
What division now took place of the whole people? What were the two parties 
called? How did the resources of the parties stand at the beginning of the war? 
Where was the first engagement fought? What were its results? What is stated of 
the campaign of 1643? What is said of John Hampden? And of Falkland? Where 
did the King summon another Parliament? To whom did Charles apply for aid? 
To whom did the Parliament apply? By whose persuasion was the solemn league 
and covenant framed? What was the purport of that instrument ? What auxiliaries 
did each party receive? What was the state of their forces? Describe the battle of 
Marston Moor. What act now introduced dissensions in Parliament? Which divi- 
sion of the Puritans now obtained command of the army? Describe the battle of 
Naseby, and its immediate consequences. Where did Charles go? What did he pro- 
pose to Parliament ? How did they reply ? Where did tho King flee 1 How was ho 
received by the Scotch army ? To whom did they deliver him ? Mention the conduct 
of the Parliamentary army after the war. How did they treat the King? Give some 
account of Oliver Cromwell. What effort did the people of London make ? How was 
it counteracted? What parties treated with the King? What frustrated all hopes of 
accommodation ? Whither did the King attempt to escape ? Where was he taken ? 
Mention the new negotiation with Parliament. What did Parliament vote ? Mention 
Pi-idc's Purge. What was the residuary Parliament called? What act was now 



354 QUESTIONS. 

passed against the King ? Where was he now imprisoned ? Mention the constitution 
of the court appointed to try him. Relate the events of his trial. What foreign 
power expressed a desire that his life might be spared? Give some account of his 
execution? What is remarked about his reign? What of his death? What of his 

character ? 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

What government was now established? What declarations were made? Who 
were appointed the executive council? What was the constitution of Parliament? 
In what state was Ireland? Describe Cromwell's conduct there. What was the posi- 
tion of the Scotch? Describe Cromwell's campaign in Scotland. What step did 
Prince Charles take? What was the issue of it? What act did Parliament pass in 
relation to Scotland ? Mention the causes of war with Holland. Who were the com- 
manders on each side? Who suffered most in that war? What is said of the gov- 
ernment? Describe Cromwell's dissolution of Parliament. How did he summon 
another? What was that Parliament called ? How were they dismissed ? 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

Into whose hands did the power now fall? What title was given to Cromwell? 
What was the character of his government? Kecite what is said of the war with the 
Dutch. When did Cromwell call another Parliament? How did he treat it? How 
did he govern afterward? How did he replenish his treasury? What squadrons did 
he equip? Relate the expedition of Blake. How was Cromwell induced to call 
another Parliament? How was it chosen? What proposition was now made to him? 
Why did he not consent to it? What constitution was adopted for Parliament? 
How did Cromwell treat it? To what situation was he now reduced? Give account 
of the close of his life. Mention what is said of the protectorate. Who succeeded 
Cromwell? What became of him? Who called the remnant of the Long Parliament ? 
How was it dissolved? What kind of government was then appointed? What steps 
did General Monk take? How did he proceed? Mention the particulars of the resto- 
ration. With what feeling did the nation regard the restoration ? What soon pre- 
Tailed at court? Had Charles' adversities improved his character? How did he act 
at first toward his political opponents? What church was now established ? Against 
whom were the persecuting laws revived? What measures diminished the King's 
popularity? How did Clarendon lose the royal favor? To what war did the King's 
prodigality give rise ? What was the ostensible reason for that measure ? Kepcat 
what is mentioned of the war. What is said of Clarendon? To whom did Charles 
now Isteust; public affairs ? Who were the members of the cabal ? What secret treaty 
did Charles make with Prance? What things gave just alarm to the people? By 
what calamities was the early part of Charles' reign marked? How did the Parlia- 
ment of 1673 act? Give an account of Titus Oates, and the rumored Popish plot. 
How did Parliament provide for Oates? What event broke the delusion? What 
foundation had it in reality ? What is said of the feelings of the people toward the 
King and his brother? What bill was introduced in Parliament? What celebrated 
statute was passed ? What is the purport of the habeas corpus act ? Who was pro- 
posed as successor to the throne? What is said of him? What is said of the Duke of 
York? How were political parties divided? What names were applied to them? 
What was the conduct of the new Parliament ? What did the King resolve upon ? 
How did the leaders of the Whig party act ? What induced Charles to summon a 



QUESTIONS. 355 

Parliament at Oxford ? Was the election favorable to the court? What measure did 
the Commons instantly resume? What afforded the King a pretext for dissolving 
them? Upon what did he now resolve? What change took place in his disposition? 
How did he act? What was done to the city of London, and to many other corpo- 
rations? What association was formed to restore freedom? What were the views 
of its leaders ? Repeat what is stated of Shaftesbury. How was the plot discovered ? 
What was the substance of the disclosure ? State what befell some of the conspira- 
tors. How did the sacrifices to the court supremacy begin? What was the character 
of Lord Howard? Repeat what is related of Lord Russell. What decree did the Uni- 
versity of Oxford pass ? Who was next brought to trial ? Repeat what is said of 
Algernon Sidney. Who were the witnesses against him? What is said of the use 
made of some papers found on his desk? Give account of his death. Who were the 
last victims? What is mentioned of some others? Who was now triumphant? 
Against what did the King now direct his attacks ? Give account of his death. What 
is said of his person and character ? What of his relations to other States ? What 
of the opposition ? What important act of Parliament is mentioned I 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

What was the first step of the new monarch? Did his actions accord with his pro- 
fession ? What was the character of his first Parliament ? With what idea did it 
impress him ? When did the name cabinet council arise ? To what is it still ap- 
plied ? Who were the most distinguished of James's cabinet ? Mention their respec- 
tive characters. What is said of the pecuniary transactions with Louis XIV. ? What 
was the plan of Monmouth and Argyle ? Give account of its result. Relate Mon- 
mouth's campaign. And the battle of Sedgemoor. Relate the subsequent misfortunes 
of Monmouth. How did James follow up his victory ? What is said of Kirke and Jef- 
fries? How many prisoners were condemned? What punishments were inflicted? 
How was Jeffries rewarded? How did James then proceed? What did he tell the 
House of Commons ? What changes did he make in his council ? What did he re- 
solve to compel the Church of England to do? How did he proceed to effect this? 
Did the Protestant clergy regard his injunction? Who are especially mentioned as 
resisting? How was the Bishop of London treated? What favor was shown the 
Catholics ? What demand did James make of the vice-chancellor of Oxford? What is 
said of his attempts to make the University subservient to his will? How did he en- 
deavor to influence the election of a new Parliament? Did he succeed? On what 
did he thenceforth determine to rely? What declaration did he order to be read in 
all churches? Did the clergy comply? What petition was drawn up ? Who drew it 
up? How did James regard it? How were the Bishops treated? Give account of 
their trial. And the effect of their acquittal. What event is mentioned as occurring 
a few days before the acquittal of the Bishops? What is stated of the Prince of Orange? 
To whom did all who wished for freedom turn their eyes? Was a formal invitation 
sent him ? Did William accept it ? How did he obtain accurate information of 
James's intentions? How did Louis XIV. offer to assist James? Why was that offer 
not accepted ? What awoke the King to a sense of his danger ? How did he then attempt 
to repair his errors? What were his concessions ascribed to? Mention the particulars 
of the arrival of the Prince of Orange. What was the course adopted by the country 
people ? What by the army ? Who else are mentioned as passing over to the Princo 
of Orange? How did James act? What measure did the Peers, then in London, 
adopt? Bid William assume the charge imposed on him? What is mentioned of 
James's return? How did he afterward proceed? Under whose protection was he 
15* 



356 QUESTIONS. 

finally received? What step did William now take? What was the first act of that 
Parliament? What question next arose? Mention the purport of the declaration of 
rights. On whom was the crown conferred? Give the character of James. Mention 
the great ends secured by the revolution of 1688. During the last two reigns had 
the resources of the country increased? What is remarked of literature and art? 
Name some of the more eminent authors. When do we find the earliest mention of a 
circulating library? What is remarked of the stage? In the other arts what names 
are mentioned? What is said of the condition of the people? 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

What was William's only title to the throne? How did he begin his reign? What 
gave rise to dissatisfaction? What new party arose? On what did the Whigs found 
their claims? What measure did they adopt? What change in government did that 
lead to? How was the war with France brought about? Where did the ill-feeling 
first appear? Give account of the rising in Ireland. What force was sent to meet it? 
Under what General ? Give account of the battle of the Boyne. Were the Irish yet 
conquered ? What battle decided the contest ? What other attempt did Louis make 
on England ? Give account of the naval engagement which followed. What other 
attempts were made in James's favor? How was the war with France brought to a 
close ? What measure was now adopted in regard to the army ? What princes were 
expecting to succeed Charles II. on the Spanish throne ? Mention the proposed partition 
of the Spanish succession. To whom did the King of Spain bequeath his possessions? 
Was that testament accepted by Louis? On what condition did William agree to it? 
What complaint did Parliament make? What act did Parliament pass in regard to 
the English succession ? What led to the grand alliance? What were its avowed ob- 
jects? When did the death of James n. occur? Whom did Louis then acknowledge 
as King of England? What effect had that act upon the English people? How did 
Parliament act in view of it ? Who was now proclaimed King of Spain by the Em- 
peror? At what juncture did William's death occur? State some features of his cha- 
racter. What great corporations are mentioned ? What was the great error of this 
reign ? 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

Who succeeded William ? Under whose influence had she been brought? How was 
Marlborough able to combine Whigs and Tories? What was the constitution of 
Queen Anne's first cabinet? Did Anne approve of the grand alliance? Who was 
now appointed commander-in-chief of the English army in Flanders? Recite what is 
said of the campaign of 1702. Mention the exploit of Sir George Rooke. What is 
said of Admiral Munden? What of Benbow? How was Marlborough rewarded? 
What is stated of the campaign of 1703? Relate Marlborough's success in 1704. How 
was he received on his return to England ? What is mentioned of Gibraltar ? Relate 
the exploits of Lord Peterborough in Spain. What victory did Marlborough obtain in 
1700? What was its effect on the French King? What was the composition of the 
new ministry? What positions did the parties assume? How was the war now 
regarded ? Mention the events of the war which followed. What was the most re- 
markable transaction of the year 1707? Recite the events which led to the union. 
Mention the principal articles of the union. How was the treaty received in Scot- 
land? now did the advisers of the Queen proceed? When did the bill of Union 



QUESTIONS. 357 

become a law? What name did the whole island then take? What is remarked of 
the advantage of that measure? What armament did Louis equip? What became 
of it? What precluded all hopes of tranquillity ? Who now marched into Flanders? 
State the principal events of the campaign. Who now sued for peace? Why was it 
afterward rejected? What was Marlborough's success in 1709? Mention the issue 
of the campaign. State the circumstances which led to the dismissal of Ilarley from 
the royal councils. In whose hands was all the real power ? IIow did the people now 
feel toward the war? What course did the Tories pursue? Who appeared as their 
champion? What is said of his sermon? To what did it lead? Give account of his 
trial. What punishment was inflicted? What new negotiation was now opened? 
Through whose influence were the proposals of Louis rejected? State the events of 
the succeeding campaign. What brought the question to an end? What change 
was now made in the ministry ? Mention the Pretender's grounds of hope, and the 
course pursued by the two parties. What honors were conferred on Ilarley ? What 
on St. John? Mention Marlborough's last campaign. On what occasion was he di- 
vested of office ? On what pretext ? What steps were now taken toward a peace 1 
What is stated of the Congress of Utrecht ? Who was sent to the Court of Ver- 
sailles? Did he encourage the hopes of the Pretender? Mention the purport of the 
treaty of Utrecht, by whom was it signed, and when ? Who beside agreed to it after 
a few months? Of what does the history of the latter portion of this reign consist? 
Who were now the principal leaders of the administration ? What was the conduct 
of Oxford ? What of Bolingbroke ? Who ultimately prevailed ? When did the death 
of Queen Anne occur? Mention what is stated of her character, and of her reign? 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

What steps were taken by the council immediately after the Queen's death ? How 
did the King's political predilections appear? What was his first act? What is re- 
marked of the qualifications of George I.? State the changes made in the administra- 
tion. What party was now in power? How was Parliament constituted? What 
course did Parliament pursue toward Bolingbroke and Prior? How did Bolingbroke 
elude a trial ? What was the purport of the report of the committee ? Who impeached 
Bolingbroke of treason ? In what terms was Oxford impeached ? Who else were in- 
cluded in the condemnation? What motion was further carried in regard to Oxford? 
What effect had these measures on Ormond ? Into whose service did he and Boling- 
broke enter? Did Bolingbroke remain attached to the Pretender? What act was 
passed against Ormond and Bolingbroke ? How were these measures viewed by the 
country ? How did the partisans of the Pretender endeavor to avail themselves of the 
discontent ? To whom did the Pretender apply for assistance ? Did Louis enter into 
his scheme? To what extent did he co-operate ? Who prevented any serious injury 
to the British cause? What event further embarrassed the Pretender? What po- 
licy did the Begent of France pursue in respect to that matter? Did the Jacobites, 
notwithstanding, attempt a revolution? Where did they fix the scene of insurrec- 
tion? Mention the particulars of the rising in Scotland, and who were arrested in 
England. Who in Scotland? Where did the Pretender's affairs wear a more favora- 
ble aspect? Mention their proceedings there. Where did they form a junction with 
the Highlanders? What did they then determine on? Relate the succeeding history 
of that division. What in the meanwhile befell those under the command of the Earl 
of Mar ? Narrate the battle of Sheriff Muir. What were the consequences of that 
battle to the cause of the Pretender ? What step did the Pretender now take ? Who 
hastened to meet him ? Where did they conduct him ? What effect had his presence 



358 QUESTIONS. 

upon his frienil? Who now advanced upon them? What advice did his friends giv« 
the Pretender? Who fled with him? What became of the rest of the rebel force? 
What accusation was brought against Argyle? How did government treat the leaders 
of the rebellion? Name the nobles who were impeached, and those who were executed. 
How did the government proceed against the prisoners taken at Preston ? How many 
were executed? How many banished? What is related of the trial of Oxford? 
What is the purport of the septennial act? Through whose influence had the northern 
States of Europe begun to take a more elevated position ? Mention what gave rise to 
the twenty years' contest. What is mentioned of Charles of Sweden ? What led him 
to join the English Jacobites? How was that confederacy broken up? Into what 
new treaty did George now enter? What act paved the way for the Quadruple Alli- 
ance? State the purport of that alliance. Did Spain acquiesce in this arrangement? 
In the war between Austria and Spain, whom did George resolve to support ? Relate 
the exploit of Sir George Byng. What was the plan of Alberoni ? Give account of the 
expedition under Ormond. How was peace restored? What change was effected in 
commercial affairs? Give an account of the great South Sea speculation. What was 
discovered upon an investigation of the subject? What punishment was inflicted 
upon the ministry? What upon the directors of the scheme? How were the princi- 
pal delinquents treated ? now much was restored to original owners? Who were put 
at the head of the new administration ? What advantage did the Jacobites take of 
the disorder ? What befell Bishop Atterbury ? How was the war with Spain renewed ? 
Was it of long continuance ? Give account of the King's visit to his native country, 
and of his death. What is remarked of his character, and of that of bis reign? 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

In what was public expectation disappointed ? To what amount had the national 
debt increased ? What is remarked of Walpole ? Of whom was the opposition to his 
government composed? Who were the heads of the opposition? With what were the 
first years of this reign chiefly occupied ? What complaint was presented to Parlia- 
ment? What course was finally adopted in view of it? What was the substance of 
the treaty of Seville ? What bill is mentioned as being passed in 1730 ? In what 
language had legal proceedings been hitherto conducted ? When was the English 
substituted ? Mention what followed the death of the Duke of Parma. Give an ac- 
count of the Charitable Corporation. How were the possessions of Lord Derwont- 
water disposed of? When was the act passed for the establishment of the sinking 
fund? How much had the yearly amount risen to in 1728? How did Walpole pro- 
pose to apply part of that sum? How was that proposal met by the opposition? 
Was it finally carried ? What new cause of complaint arose between Spain and Bri- 
tain ? What attempt was made to remove it peaceably ? Why did that fail ? How 
was the minister compelled to declare war? Mention the exploit of Admiral Vernon. 
What action did the House of Commons take thereupon? How did the ministry act? 
Give account of the expedition under Sir Chaloner Ogle. And of that under Anson. 
What had the Emperor Charles VI. declared by "Pragmatic sanction?" By what 
powers was that regulation approved of? Who became his successor? What powers 
invaded her dominions? By whom was the Queen of Hungary supported? How were 
the parties arranged in the succeeding war ? What new effort was made by the Jacob- 
ite party in Scotland ? With what means did the young Pretender embark ? What 
misfortune met them by the way? How was Charles received in the Highlands? 
What were bis first successes? What clans chiefly maintained his cause? What 
measures were taken by the ministry ? What step did Charles take at Perth? Who 



QUESTIONS. 359 

joined him there? Whom did he appoint lieutenant-general of his forces? From 
Perth where did he proceed? Recite the account of the battle of Preston Pans. 
What benefits accrued to the Pretender's cause from that -victory ? Did he follow up 
his advantage? By whom was he now joined? What step did he finally resolve 
upon? Give account of his march into England. Describe his situation at Derby. 
What movement did he determine on? Give account of his retreat. Where did he 
receive reinforcements? Repeat what is stated of the battle of Falkirk. Did the 
Prince follow up this victory? Who now assumed the command of the royal army 
in Scotland? Whither did the Pretender now retreat? Where did he resolve to 
meet the royal troops? Describe the battle of Culloden. How did the victors behave? 
Give an account of the escape of the Pretender. What befell his adherents? Men- 
tion some cases of punishment. Relate that of Lord Lovat. What bill was passed 
to secure the peace of the Highlands? What right was withdrawn from the heads 
of clans? Did these measures effect their end? Recount the successes of the French 
in Flanders. On the side of Italy what had been their fortune? What were the 
English advantages on sea? What circumstances rendered a peace indispensable to 
France ? State the substance of the treaty of Aix la Chapelle. Was the original 
cause of the war mentioned ? What circumstances conspired to weaken the opposi- 
tion to the existing government? Who are mentioned among the most distinguished 
members of the British Parliament? To what honors did Murray afterward rise? 
What is remarked of Pitt ? How was Fox distinguished ? What was the state of 
Europe for a few years after the peace of Aix la Chapelle? What had rendered a re- 
formation of the calendar necessary? Of what purport was the bill in relation to 
this point? What is stated of the bill for naturalization of Jews? What is remarked 
of Mr. Pelham ? Who succeeded him in office ? What continued to be ground of 
dispute between France and England ? Had the treaty of Aix la Chapelle defined 
their colonial boundaries ? What part of North America had been ceded to England 
by the peace of Utrecht? On what point had disputes prevailed in relation to it? 
What claims did the French make in North America ? State their plan of connecting 
their American colonies. How would the realization of this plan have affected the 
British colonies ? Who is mentioned as having been sent to occupy a post on the 
Ohio? What fortune befell him there? How was this event looked upon in Eng- 
land? Mention the different Generals ordered out against the French in America, and 
their points of attack. How did the English follow up these attacks 1 Mention the 
affair of Minorca and the fate of Admiral Byng. Who was now appointed Secretary 
of State ? What was the state of British affairs in Germany ? Relate the movements 
and capitulation of the Duke of Cumberlaud, and the exploits of Frederick of Prussia. 
Who were defeated in the battle of Minden? Who almost deprived France of a navy? 
Where else was British valor equally triumphant ? Give an account of Wolfe's at- 
tack on Quebec. What addition was soon afterward made to the British Empire? 
Give a history of the National debt of England. What was one great cause of the 
expansion of National commerce ? What is remarked of the progress of the fine arts? 
What of science and literature? What of the state of society? What of the East 
India Company? 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Who was the successor of George II.? By his recommendation what act was 
passed? What brought Spain and Portugal into the contest? What events favored 
Frederick of Prussia? AVhat did Britain gain by a treaty of peace? Relate the events 
which occurred in relation to Mr. Wilkes. Who became prime minister iu 1770? 
What had created dissatisfaction in the British colonies? What is said of the stamp 



360 QUESTIONS. 

act? On what other articles was a duty imposed? What led to its withdrawal? 
From what article was the duty not withdrawn? Relate the events which occurred 
in relation to that duty. What other measure did the minister resolve on? IIow did 
the Americans resent this measure? What change took place in the ministry ? Was 
Pitt's plan for the adjustment of the difficulty adopted ? What effect had the 
American war upon the feelings of the English people ? How did France attempt to 
take advantage of it? What led to a new war with France? Give account of the 
last effort of Pitt. What other country now joined America ? What is remarked of 
the " Protestant Association ? " IIow many enemies were now arrayed against Britain ? 
What possessions were taken from the Dutch ? Into what confederacy did the powers 
of the Baltic enter? To what conclusion was the American war brought? State the 
condition of the British ministry at the end of the war. Mention the trial of War- 
ren Hastings and its result. What disorder befell the King ? Who was appointed 
Regent? When did the French Revolution commence ? Relate the steps that led to it. 
How did England regard the murder of Louis XVI.? Against whom did the French 
declare war ? Mention some of the events of that war. Which party was upon the 
whole successful? What did the British gain in India? What did they lose in con- 
sequence of Bonaparte's successes in Italy ? Against whom did the French next turn 
their arms? What is represented as the motive for Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt? 
Relate the events of that enterprise. What was Bonaparte's first act upon his return 
to France? State what is said of the campaign of Marengo. In what other great 
battle were the Austrians defeated ? What alliances were now made with France f 
For what purpose was a British fleet sent into the Baltic 1 Relate the action which followed. 
What change did the death of Paul make in the relations of Russia ? Was the peace 
of Amiens of long duration ? State the movements of Napoleon which immediately 
succeeded. What was done by the British fleets? Recite what is stated of the posture 
of Spain. By whom were the combined fleets of France and Spain pursued ? Describe 
the battle of Trafalgar. What alliance had been signed at St. Petersburg? How 
did Napoleon act in view of it ? Describe the campaign of Austerlitz. What was the 
effect of that victory upon the alliance ? Mention the changes which now took place 
in the British ministry. On what scheme did Napoleon now openly enter? What 
steps did he immediately take to that end? What led to the French war with Russia? 
What did Napoleon gain by the defeat of the Russians at Friedland ? State the con- 
dition of the parties on the continent. How did Napoleon hope to enfeeble England? 
To what extent had Russia been brought into his measures ? What step did Eng- 
land take to break up the coalition? What was the position of Portugal? Relate 
the designs of Napoleon on that country, and the events which followed. How did 
Napoleon interfere in Spain? How did his acts affect the Spaniards? What measures 
were taken to resist the French ? From whom did they solicit assistance ? Did the 
Portugese make common cause with them? What British General was sent with 
assistance to the Peninsula? What was the success of the combined troops? Relate 
the campaign of Sir John Moore. Mention the first successes of Wellington. Did he 
find that any reliance could be placed on Spanish co-operation ? What was the cha- 
racter of Wellington's succeeding operations, until the retreat of Massena? Describe 
Wellington's Campaign in 1812. What victory did he obtain in 1813? Repeat what 
is mentioned until Napoleon's abdication. What occurred upon Napoleon's return? 
Describe the campaign and battle of Waterloo. Where was Napoleon imprisoned? 
What is remarked of the death and character of George III. ? 



CHAPTEE XXXVII. 

What was the state of Europe upon the accession of George IV.? What is remarked 
of his reign? Mention some of the events alluded to. 



QUESTIONS. 361 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
Under what auspices did the reign of William IV. begin? What contributed much to 
his popularity? In what vessel had he first sailed? What anecdote is related of 
him? Mention his regular promotion. Relate some other events in his personal his- 
tory What change took place in the ministry in 1830 ? In the progress of the reform 
bill what course did William pursue ? What is remarked of his character in general? 
By whom was he succeeded on the throne? 



MOORE 8c ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS, 



A CONCISE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, to the accession of 

Queen Victoria, by Clark, edited by Prof. Moffat. New edi- 
tion with a series of Questions : 

" We know of no history of England of the same size, so calculated to 
give the reader a clear view of the complicated events of that country as the 
one before us." — N. Y. Christian Intelligencer. 

"As a compend to be always at hand, it is superior to any we have 
seen." — Christian Herald. 

" It will be found a useful summary of English History, combining the 
attractiveness of a narrative with the advantages of brevity and chronologi- 
cal defiuiteness." — N. Y. Courier $ Enquirer. 

"An excellent outline of English History. It would make a capital text- 
book for our schools and colleges. It shows what the people, as well as the 
Kings of England, were doing." — Enquirer. 

"Just what it purports to be — a concise, clear, and methodical outline of 
English history, well adapted for school purposes and for young readers. 
It gives an easy narrative, and condenses all the principal facts in a way to 
convey much instruction, and at the same time to excite a desire for larger 
works." — N. Y. Evangelist. 

" This is one of the best and most useful text-books of history we have 
ever examined; and it would be difficult to decide whether it is entitled to 
greater commendation for its succinct and correct statement of facts or the 
terse and pure language in which it is written." — Lawrenceburg Register. 

"A single duodecimo volume, offering a brief narrative, a skeleton map, 
as it were, of the events of English history. It is neatly written, a good 
manual for instruction, and a useful book of reference in the library, when 
one has not the leisure to hunt a fact through larger works. The additions, 
exhibiting the progress of society, are judiciously made." — Literary World. 

" This is a clear, succinct, well- arranged history: it will be found very 
convenient for reference, and well adapted for the use of classes. We com- 
mend it to all who wish for such a manual." — Ohio Jour, of Education. 

" This is a very comprehensive manual of English History. * * As a 
class-book in our schools it will be invaluable." — Hartford, Conn., Daily 
Times. 

"I have never used a text-book with more satisfaction. * * * After 
using it nearly a year, I most confidently recommend it to the favorable 
attention of the public. Edward Cooper, 

President of Asbury Female College, New Albany, Indiana, 

formerly Editor N. Y. District School Journal. 



MOORE &. ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS. 
HUGH MILLER'S NEW BOOK. 

SCENES AND LEGENDS OF THE NORTH OF SCOTLAND. 
By Hugh Miller, author of " Footprints of the Creator." 1 vol. 
12 mo. Pp.436. Price $1. 

" A delightful book by one of the most delightful of living authors." — 
N. Y. Cour. and Enq. 

"In this book Hugh Miller appears as the simple dramatist, reproducing 
home stories and legends in their native costume, and in full life. The vol- 
ume is rich in entertainment for all lovers of the genuine Scotch character." 
N. Y. Independent. 

"Fascinating portraits of quaint original characters and charming tales of 
the old faded superstitious of Scotland, make up the ' Scenes and Legends.' 
Purity of diction and thoughtful earnestness, with a vein of easy, half-con- 
cealed humor pervading it, are the characteristics of the author's style. Ad- 
ded to these, in the present volume, are frequent touches of the most elegantly 
"wrought fancy ; passages of sorrowful tenderness that change the opening 
smile into a tear, and exalted sentiment that brings reflection to the heart." 
Citizen. 

"This is a book which will be read by those who have read the other works 
of this distinguished author. His beautiful style, his powers of description, 
his pathos, his quiet humor and manly good sense would give interest to 
any subject. * * There is no part of the book that is not interesting." — 
Louisville Journal. 

" This is one of the most unique and original books that has been written 
for many years, uniting in a singularly happy manner all the charms of fic- 
tion to the more substantial and enduring graces of truth. The author is a 
capital story teller, prefacing what he has to say with no learned circumlo- 
cutions. We cannot now call to mind any other style that so admirably com- 
bines every requisite for this kind of writing, with the exception of that of 
his more illustrious countryman, Scott, as the one Hugh Miller possesses." — 
Columbian. 

" The contents of the book will be as instructive and entertaining, as the 
exterior is elegant and attractive. Hugh Miller writes like a living man, who 
has eyes, and ears, and intellect, and a heart of his own, and not like a gal- 
vanized skeleton, who inflicts his dull repetitions of what other men have 
seen and felt in stately stupidity upon their unfortunate readers. His obser- 
vation is keen, and his powers of description unrivaled. His style is like a 
mountain-stream, that flows on in beauty and freshness, imparting enliven- 
ing influences all around. His reflections, when he indulges in them, are 
just and impressive." — Christian Herald. 

" Tales so romantic, yet so natural, and told in a vein of unaffected sim- 
plicity and graphic delineation, rivaling Hogg and Scott, of the same land, 
will command avast number of admiring readers." — N. Y. Christ. Intel. 

" The interest of its facts far exceeds romance." — JV. Y. Euan. 

" This book is worthy of a place by the side of the world renowned vol- 
umes which have already proceeded from the same pen." — I'/ril. Chronicle. 



WILLIAM TT. MOOT?E & CO S PUBLICATIONS. 



MUSIC BOOKS FOR CHOIRS 



THE PSALMODIST. 

By Thomas Hastings and Wm. B. Bradbury. A Choice Collection of Psalms and 
Hymn Tunes, chiefly new— adapted to the very numerous Metres now in use ; to- 
gether with Chants, Anthems, Motels, and various other pieces, for the use of Choirs, 
Congregations, Singing Schools and Musical Associations, most of which toe now 
for the first time presented to the American public. ^Twentieth edition of 3000 
each. 352 pages. 75 cents. 

This excellent collection of Church Music has given general satisfaction wherever it 
has been introduced. 

THE SACRED CHORALIST. 

By Thomas Hastings and W'm. B. Bradbury. A New and Valuable Collection of 
Tunes in all the Metres, with an entire new collection of Anthems and Set Pieces — 
for the use of Choirs, Congregations, Singing Schools, and Musical Societies ; being 
one of the most complete Collections of Sacred Music ever published. 75 cents. 

This book will be found to possess many of Ihe choicest Gems in Music. The lessons 
and instructions are strictly progressive, and are fashioned alter the most approved 
methods of teaching; the Anthems and Set Pieces are of the most interesting kind ; and 
the Publishers believe that the whole book is superior to anything yet given to the Musical 
public. 

THE SOCIAL SINGING BOOK. 

A Collection of Glees, or Part Songs, Rounds, Madrigals, &c, chiefly from Eu- 
ropean Composers, with an Introductory Course of Elementary Exercises and Sol- 
feggios, designed for Singing Classes and Schools of Ladies and Gentlemen. By Wm. 
B. Bradbury. 60 cents. 



PSALM AND HYMN BOOK FOR CHURCHES. 



THE CHURCH PSALMIST, 

Or Psalms and Hymns for the Public, Social, and Private use of Evangelical Chris- 
tians. Three sizes — 

12mo size, in large type, for the Pulpit and for the aged. $1 00. This copy con- 
tains, in addition to the first lines of Psalms and Hymns, a copious Index, con- 
taining the first lines of stanzas, and a complete Key to musical expression. 
18mo, or middle size. 67 cents. 32mo, or small size. 56 cents. 

A liberal discount, from these prices, is made to Churches, making the Chur.h 
Psalmist the cheapest Book of the kind in the market. 

The Psalms of Dr. Watts, which is the basis of this Collection, are given without alter- 
ation. The Hymns are 722 in number, and have been selected from the productions of 
the best writers of this species of poetry This book has given the most entire satisfac- 
tion wherever it has been introduced, and has received the approbation anil recommenda- 
tion of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church at their session in 1813, and again 
in 1S16. 

The Church Psalmist has been published about four years, and nearly 30,000 copies 
have been sold. The limits of this Catalogue will not allow us to insert even the names 
of the Presbyteries and Churches, who have adopted the book. 

The Hymns are bound in a separate volume under the title of " The Social Psalmist'' 
This book is peculiarly adapted to the Conference room. 



WILLIAM H. MOORE 4 COS PUBLICATIONS. 



MUSIC BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. 



FLORA'S FESTIVAL. 

A Musical Recreation for Schools, Juvenile Choirs, Classes, &c, together with Songs 
Duetts and Trios, Solfeggios, Scales, and Plain Tunes for singing by Note, in thir- 
teen keys, fcr the advancement of youth who have acquired some knowledge of the 
elements, as taught in the Young Choir and Young Melodist. Edited by W'm. B. 
Bradbury. 144 pages. 25 cents. 

The leading music in this book was performed by Eight Hundred Children in the Broad- 
way Tubernacle three successive evenings, in the .Spring of 1847; and hundreds were not 
able to gain admittance No Teacher or Composer has ever been so successful in adapt- 
ing music for Children as Mr. Bradbury. 

THE YOUNG MELODIST. 

A New and Rare Collection of Social, Moral, and Patriotic Songs, designed for 
Schools and Academies— composed and arranged for one, two, or three voices. By 
Wm. B. Bradbury. Eighth edition. 144 pages. 25 cents. 

This is a most charming book for little Singers : its adoption and use in Schools has, in 
numberless cases, by its benevolent influence, done away with the use of the cruel rod Let 
Teachers try the effects of such pieces as the following: " Come Sweetly Sing," " Wei- 
come to School." " The Golden Rule," " Our Native Land," and many others of the one 
hundred and twenty in the book, and they will be charmed with it. 

THE YOUNG CHOIR, 

Or School Singing Book, original and selected. By Wm. B. Bradburt and C. W. 

Sanders. Twenty-fifth edition. 144 pages. 25 cents. 
More than 50,000 copies of this little book have been sold, since its publication in 1842. 

THE SCHOOL SINGER, 

Or Young Choir's Companion— a Choice Collection of Music, original and selected, 
for Juvenile Singing Schools, Sabbath Schools, Public Schools, Academies, Select 
Classes, &o , including some of the most popular German Melodies, with English 
words adapted, or Poetry translated from the German expressly for this work ; also, 
a Complete Course of Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music, founded on the 
German system of Kubler. By Wm. B. Bradbury and C. W. Sanders. Tenth 
edition, 204 pages. 37* cents. 

This book has also been extensively introduced into Schools, and is in very general use 
to the entire satisfaction of both Teachers and Scholars. 

THE CRYSTAL FOUNT. 

A New Temperance Song Book, beautifully arranged with Hymns, Songs, and Music 
entirely new. By Thomas Hastings. This book is admirably adapted for Temper- 
ance Choirs, Meetings and Celebrations — beiDg arranged in parts -or Bass and 
Treble voice. 112 pages. 25 cents. 

This Temperance Song Book will commend itself to all friends of Temperance : it con- 
tains upwards of fifty pieces of Music, new and appropriate, lor Temperance meetings. 
The price is fixed very low, in order to give it a wide circulation. 

MRS. DANA'S NORTHERN HARP: 

Consisting of Sacred and Moral Songs, adapted to the most popular Melodies, for 
the Piano Forte and Guitar, half bound. $ 1 00 

TH£ CHRISTIAN LYRE. 

A Collection of Hymns and Tunes adapted for Social worship, Prayer meetings, and 
Revivals of Religion. Twenty-sixth edition. 

THE TEMPERANCE LYRE BY MRS. DANA: 

Consisting of Songs and Glees for Temperance meetings, set to popular airs, 124 
cents. 



wmmmm mm wmmmwrn® 

THE MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE; a collection of Discourses on Christian 
Missions, by American Authors. Edited by Baron Stow, D. D. Second thousand, 
12mo, cloth, ,85 

THE KAREN APOSTLE ; or. Memoir of Ko-Thah-Byu, the first Karen Convert. 
With Notices concerning his Nation. By Rev. Francis Mason, Missionary. Edited by 
Prof. H. J. Ripley. 18mo, cloth,.... ,25 

MEMOIR OF ANN H. JUOSON, late Missionary to Burmah. By Rev. J. D. 

Knowles. A new edition. Fifty-fifth thousand. 18mo, cloth,.... ,58 

Fine edition, plates, 16mo, cloth, gilt,.... ,85 

MEMOIR OF GEORGE DANA BOARDMAN, late Missionary to Burmah,— con- 
taining much intelligence relative to the Burman Mission. By Rev. A. King. With an 
Introductory Essay. By W. R. Williams, D. D. New edition. 12mo, . . . cloth, .... ,75 

MEMOIR OF HENRIETTA SHUCK; first Female Missionary to China. With a 
Likeness. By Rev. J. B. Jeter. Fifth thousand. 18mo, cloth,. ... ,50 

MEMOIR OF REV. WILLIAM G. CROCKER, late Missionary in West Africa, 
among the Bassas. Including a History of the Mission. By R. B. Medbery. With a 
Likeness. ] 8mo, cloth, .... ,63 

A HISTORY OF AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONS, in Asia, Africa, Europe, 
and North America, from their earliest commencement to the present time. 
Prepared under the direction of the American Baptist Missionary Union. By 
William Gammell, Prof, in Brown University. With seven Maps. Sixth thousand. 
12mo, cloth, ,75 

•^ Letters from the Missionaries now in the field, and who are the best qualified to judge 
ef its accuracy, have been received, giving Itieir unequivocal testimony to the fidelity of the work. 

THE GREAT COMMISSION ; or, the Christian Church constituted and charged 
to convey the Gospel to the world. A Prize Essay. By John Harris, D. D. With 
an Introductory Essay, by William R. Williams, D. D. Seventh thousand. 
12mo, cloth, 1,00 

THE GREAT TEACHER; or, Characteristics of our Lord's Ministry. By John 
Harris, D. D. With an Introductory Essay, by H. Humphrey, D. D. Twelfth thousand. 
12mo, cloth,.... ,85 

MISCELLANIES ; consisting principally of Sermons and Essays. By J. Harris, D. D. 
With an Introductory Essay and Notes, by Joseph Belcher, D. D. 16mo,. cloth,. . . .,75 

MAMMON ; or, Covetousness the Sin of the Christian Church. By J. Harris, D. D. 
18mo, cloth,.... ,45 

ZEBULON ; or, the Moral Claims of Seamen stated and enforced. By J. Harris, D. D. 
18mo, cloth,.... ,25 

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH. Contributions to Theological Science. By John 
iIarris, D. D. New and Revised edition. One volume, 12mo, cloth,. . . .1,00 

MAN PRIMEVAL; or the Constitution and Primitive Condition of the Human Being. 
A Contribution to Theological Science. By John Harris, D. D. With a finely engraved 
Portrait of the Author. Third edition. 12mo, cloth 1,25 

" His copious and beautiful illustrations of the successive laws of the Divine Manifestation, have 
yielded us inexpressible delight."— London Selective Review. 

THE FAMILY ; its Constitution, Probation, and History; being the third volume of 
" Contributions to Theological Science." By John Harris, D. D [In preparation 



TH E PSALM 1ST : a New Collection of Hymns for the use of the Baptist Churches By 
Baron Stow and S. P. Smith. 

Pulpit edition 12mo, (large type,) Turkey morocco, gilt edges,.... 3,00 

" " 12mo, " " plain morocco,.... 1,50 

" » 12mo, " " sheep 1,25 

Pew, " lSiiio, sheep ,75 

" " 18mo, morocco, ... .1,00 

" " 18mo, morocco, gilt, 1,25 

" " 18mo, Turkey morocco, gilt, . . . .2,62% 

Pocket, " 32mo, sheep, ,56% 

" " 32mo, morocco, plain,.... ,75 

" " 32mo, morocco, gilt, ,83% 

" " 32mo, embossed morocco, gilt edges, 1,00 

M " 32mo, tucks, gilt,.... 1,25 

" " 32mo, Turkey morocco, . . . .1,50 

THE PSALMIST, WITH A SUPPLEMENT. By R. Poller, and J. B. Jeter.— 
Same price ; style and size as above. 

THE SOCIAL PSALMIST ; a new Selection of Hymns.for Conference Meetings and 
Family Devotion. By Baron Stow and S. P. Smith. 18mo, sheep, ,25 

WINCHELL'S WATTS, with a Supplement. 12mo sheep, ,50 

32mo, sheep, .... ,67 

WATTS AND RIPPON. 32mo, sheep,.... ,56% 

18mo, sheep, . ... ,88 

THE CHRISTIAN MELODIST ; a new Collection of Hymns for Social Religious 
Worship. By Rev. Joseph Banvard. With a choice selection of Music, adapted to the 
Hymns. 18mo, sheep, ,37% 

THE SACRED MINSTREL; a Collection of Church Music, consisting of Psalm and 
Hymn Tunes, Anthems, Sentences, Chants, &c, selected from the most popular produc- 
tions of nearly one hundred different authors, in this and other countries. By N. D. 
Gould, ,75 

COMPANION FOR THE PSALMIST ; containing original Music, arranged for 
Hymns in " The Psalmist," of peculiar character and metre. By N.D. Gould,.... ,12% 



JEWETT ON BAPTISM. The Mode and Subjects of Baptism. By M. P. Jewett, 
A. M., late Minister of the Presbyterian Church. Twelfth thousand. cloth,. . . . ,25 

JUDSON ON BAPTISM. A Discourse on Christian Baptism ; with many quotations 
from Pedobaptist Authors. By Adoniram Judson, D. D. Fifth edition, revised and 
enlarged, cloth, .... ,25 

ESSAY ON CHRISTIAN BAPTISM, By Baptist W. Noel. 16mo,... cloth,.... ,60 

BIBLE BAPTISM. A beautiful Steel Engraving, nine by twelve inches in size, repre- 
senting in the centre a Church and a Baptismal scene, &c, and in the margin are ar- 
ranged all the texts of Scripture found in the New Testament alluding to the subject of 
Baptism. An elegant ornamental picture for the parlor, ,25 



•wMMMMmM mmmmwwm irons®. 

THE LIFE AND CORRESPONDENCE OF JOHN FOSTER. Edited by J. E. 
Ryland, with notices of Mr. Foster, as a Preacher and a Companion. By John Shep- 
pard. A new edition, two volumes in one, 700 pages. 12mo, cloth,.... 1,25 

"In simplicity of language, in majesty of conception, in the eloquence of that conciseness 
which conveys in a short sentence more meaning than the mind dares at once admit, — Ms writings 
are unmatched." — North British Review. 

RELIGIOUS PROGRESS; Discourses on the Development of the Christian Character. 
By William R. Williams, D. D. Second edition. 12mo, cloth, 85 

" This work is from the pen of one of the brightest lights of the American Pulpit. We scarcely 
know of any living writer who has a finer command of powerful thought and glowing, impressive 
language, than he. The present volume will advance, if possible, the reputation which his pre- 
vious works have acquired for him." — Albany Evening Atlas. 

" This book is a rare phenomena in these days. It is a rich exposition of Scripture, with a fund 
of practical, religious wisdom, conveyed in a style so strong and so massive, as to remind one of 
the English writers of two centuries ago ; and yet it abounds in fresh illustrations drawn from every 
— even the latest opened — field of science and of literature." — Methodist Quarterly. 

LECTURES ON THE LORD'S PRAYER, By William K. Williams, D. D. 12mo, 

cloth, ,85 

MOTHERS OF THE WISE AND GOOD, By Rev. Jabez Burns, D. D., Author of 
" Pulpit Cyclopedia, etc." Third thousand. 16mo, . . . . • cloth,. . . . ,75 

A beautiful gallery of portraits of those who not only were " wise and good " in their own gen- 
eration, but whose influence, long after they were slumbering in the dust, went forth to Uve again 
in their children. A sketch of the mothers of many of the most eminent men of the world, and 
showing how much they were indebted to maternal influence, for their greatness and excellence of 
character is given. Works of this nature cannot be too widely circulated or attentively read. 

UNIVERSITY SERMONS. Sermons delivered in the Chapel of Brown University. 
By Francis Wayland. Third thousand. 12mo, cloth, 1,00 

" The discourses contained in this handsome volume are characterized by all that richness of 
thought and elegance of language for which their talented author is celebrated. The whole volume 
is well worthy of the pen of the distinguished scholar and divine from whom it emanates." — Dr. 
Baird's Christian Union* 

THE CHRISTIAN'S DAILY TREASURY; a Religious Exercise for every day in 
the year By E. Temple. 12mo, cloth,. . . .1,00 

THE EXTENT OF THE ATONEMENT, in its relation to God and the Universe. 
By Thomas W. Jenkyn, D. D. From the third London Edition. 12mo, . .cloth, 85 

ANTIOCH ; or, Increase of Moral Power in the Church of Christ. By P. Church. 
D.D. With an Essay, by Baron Stow, D. D. 18mo cloth,.... ,50 

PHILOSOPHY OF THE PLAN OF SALVATION; a book for the times. By an 
American Citizen. With an Introductory Essay by Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., 12mo,— 

cloth,.... ,62 >£ 

THE CHURCH MEMBER'S HAND BOOK ; a Plain Guide to the Doctrines and 
Practice of Baptist Churches. By Rev. William Crowell. Third thousand. 18mo, 

cloth, ,38 

PRACTICAL COMMENTARY ON PHILIPPIANS, by Dr. A. Neander. Trans- 
lated by H. C. Conant. With an account of the Closing Scenes of the Author's Life, 
by Rauh. 12mo, cloth. 

DR. NEANDER'S COMMENTARY ON EPISTLE OF JAMES, [in preparation.' 



THE UNION OF THE HOLY SPIRIT AND THE CHURCH, in the Conversion 
of the World. By Thomas W. Jenkxn, D. D. Second thousand. 12mo,.. cloth ,85 

REPUBLICAN CHRISTIANITY ; or, True Liberty, as exhibited in the Life, Pre- 
cepts, and Early Disciples of the Great Kedeemer. By Bev. E. L. Magoon, Author of 
" Proverbs for the People," &c. Second edition. 12mo, cloth,.... 1,25 

PROVERBS FOR THE PEOPLE; or, Illustrations of Practical Godliness, drawn 
from the Book of Wisdom. By Bev. Ellas L. Magoon. Second thousand. 
12mo, cloth,.... ,90 

COLEMAN'S PRIMITIVE CHURCH. The Apostolical and Primitive Church, 
Popular in its Government and Simple in its Worship. By L. Coleman, Author of 
" Christian Antiquities ; " with an Introductory Essay, by Dr. A. Neandeb. Third 
thousand. 12mo, cloth, ... .1,25 

LIFE OF PHILIP MELANCTHON, comprising an Account of the most important 
transactions of the Reformation. By Francis A. Cox, D. D., LL. D., of London. 
12mo, cloth,.... ,75 

THE IMITATION OF CHRIST. By Thomas A Kempis. Introductory Essay, 
by T. Chalmers, D. D. New and improved edition. Edited by H. Malcom, D. D. 
18mo, cloth ,88 

Fine edition, 16mo, cloth,.... ,50 

THE SAINT'S VERLASTING REST. By Richard Baxter. 16mo,. cloth,... ,50 

BUCK'S RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE ; aTreatise in which the Nature, Evidences, 
and Advantages are considered. By Bev. C Buck, London. 12mo, cloth, 50 

CHRISTIANITY DEMONSTRATED : in four distinct and independent series of 
Proofs ; with an Explanation of the Types and Prophecies concerning the Messiah. By 
Rev. Harvey Newcomb. 12mo, cloth ,75 

MEMOIR OF HARLAN PAGE; or, the Power of Prayer and Personal Effort for the 
Souls of Individuals. By William A. Hallock. 18mo, cloth,.... ,38 

MEMOIR OF ROGER WILLIAMS, Founder of the State of Rhode Island. By 
William Gammell, A. M. With a Portrait. 12mo, cloth,.... ,75 

THE CHURCH MEMBER'S M A N U A L of Ecclesiastical Principles, Doctrines, and 
Discipline. By Rev. W. Croweix; Introduction by H. J. Ripley, D. D. Second 
edition, revised. 12mo, cloth,.... ,90 

THE PERSON AND WORK OF CHRIST. By Ernest Sartorius, D. D., General 
Superintendent and Consistorial Director at Konigsberg, Prussia. Translated from the 
German. By Rev. Oakman S. Stearns, A. M. 18mo, cloth,.... ,42 

THE INCARNATION. By Rollin H. Neale, D. D., Pastor of the First Baptist 
Church, Boston. 32mo, gilt, ,31 }£ 

THE CHURCH-MEMBER'S GUIDE. By Bev. John A. James. Edited by J. O. 
Choules, D. D. New edition. With an Introductory Essay, by the Bev. Hubbard 
Winslow cloth,.... ,38 

THE CHURCH IN EARNEST. By Bev. John A. James. Seventh thousand. 
18mo cloth, ,50 

PASCAL'S THOUGHTS. Thoughts of Blaise Pascal, translated from the French. 
A new edition ; with a sketch of his life. 12mo, cloth,. . . .1,00 

THE LIFE OF GODFREY WM. VON LEIBNITZ. By John M. Mackte. On the 
basis of the German work of Dr. G. E. Guhrauer. 18mo, cloth, ,75 

MY PROGRESS IN ERROR AND RECOVERY TO TRUTH; or, a Tour 
through Universalism, Unitarianism, and Skepticism. 2d thousand. 16mo, cloth,.. ,63 



HAVE CONSTANTLY ON HAN]), A LARGE AND GKNEKAL ASSORTMENT OF 

BAPTIST BOOKS, 

Together with all the Standard and Choice Theological Works extant; 
(Special attention is paid to furnishing Ministers' Libraries), 

AT No. 28 WEST FOURTH STREET, 

CINCINNATI. 

Comprehensive Commentary. Baptist Edition. 

Clark's Commentary. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 

Fuller's Complete Works, in three volumes. Carson on Baptism. 

Encyclopedia or Religious Knowledge. 

The Psalmist. A Collection of Hymns for the use of Baptist Churches, with a 
Supplement of 106 Hymns. This work contains nearly thirteen hundred 
hymns. Pocket edition, 50 cents; pew edition, 75 cents; pulpit edition, 
$1 25. All the varieties of extra binding, at corresponding prices. A liberal 
discount to Churches and individuals ordering by the dozen or hundred 
copies. 

Cruden's Condensed Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. 

Ripley's Notes or the Gospels and Acts, for Sabbath Schools and Bible Classes, 
and as an aid to family instruction. Gospels, $1 25. Acts, 75. 

Malcolm's Bible Dictionary of the most important names, terms, and objects 
in the Holy Scriptures. One Hundredth Thousand; 50 cents. 

Williams' Miscellanies. Williams on the Lord's Prayer. 

Pengilly's Scripture Guide to Baptism. 

Bunyan's Awakening Works; Inviting Works; Devotional Works; Directing 
Works. Each volume complete in itself; 75 cents per volume. 

Curtis on Communion. Smith on Infant Baptism. 

The Serpent Uncoiled, or a Full Length Picture of (Jniversalism. 

Harris' Works. Mammon. — The Great Teacher. — The Great Commission. — 
Miscellanies. — Man Primeval. 

Gill's Infant Baptism, a Part and Pillar of Popery. Edited by Dr. Ide. 

History of American Baptist Missions. By Professor Gammell. 

Malcolm's Travels in Asia, containing a full account of the Burman Empire. 
Eighth Edition. One volume of 427 pages, with 62 steel and wood engra- 
vings. Price reduced to one dollar. 

The Karen Apostle; or, Memoir of the first Karen convert. 

The Missionary Enterprise, a collection of Sermons on Missions. 

Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. 

The Baptist Harp, the new Hymn Book for Social Meetings and Revivals. It 
contains nearly six hundred hymns. Small size, 25 cts. Large size, 35 cts. 

Remington's Rrasons for Becoming a Baptist. 

Remington's Defence op Restricted Communion. 

Miscellaneous, Theological, Medical, Juvenile and School Books, Bibles. Also. 
Blank Books and Plain and Fancy Stationery. 

Also, all the Publications of the American Baptist Publication Society. 



MOORE & ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS. 

" Will prove more generally useful, than any other work yet 
published on Geology." 
THE COURSE OF CREATION : By John Anderson, D. D., of New- 
burgh, Scotland. With a Glossary of Scientific Terms. 1 vol. 12mo. 

Illustrated, $1.25. 

" It treats chiefly of the series of rock» between the Alps and the Grampians. It ii 
thoroughly scientific, but popular in its style, and exceedingly entertaining." — Ziori's 
Herald. 

" The author's style is clear and engaging, and his graphic descriptions seem to con- 
vey the reader at once into the fields of geological research to observe for himself." — 
Ohio Observer. 

"Another valuable contribution to the cause of truth and sound science. Its value 
is very much enhanced by the Glossary of Scientific Terms appended to it by the pub- 
lishers; for scarcely any one of the sciences has a larger number of terms with which 
ordinary readers are unacquainted than Geology." — Presbyterian, of the West. 

" We commend the volume to all who would be instructed in the wonderful worki 
of God. Chapters such as that on the "Economic History of Coal," and those on "Or- 
ganic Life" and " Physical and Moral Progression," have a special value for the stu- 
dent of divine Providence." — JV. Y. Independent. 

" Dr. Anderson is evidently well skilled in geology, and writes with a freedom 
and vivacity rivaled by no writer on the subject — except Hugh Miller." — Methodist 
Quarterly Review. 

"This book is intended for general readers, — and such readers will be entertained 
by it, — but it is none the less thorough, and enters boldly into geological inquiry." — 
Boston Advertiser. 

" One of the most interesting and valuable works on Geology that we have ever met 
with. The author is a thoroughly scientific man; — but his scientific accuracy does not 
prevent the work from being understood by unscientific readers, it is a very readable 
book." — Louisville Journal. 

"By reading this book a person can obtain a general knowledge of the whole subject." 
— Western Star. 

* * * " Highly honorable to the writer and honorable to the publishers." — Boston 
Congregationalist. 

"This valuable volume was printed, it well as published, in Cincinnati; and it 
speaks as well for the literary society of that city, as for the enterprise of the publish- 
ers, and the taste and skill of the typographer." — Boston Post. 

" It is one of the significant signs of the times that we should be receiving a work 
like this, from a city that had scarcely an existence fifty years ago, got up in a style 
of elegance, that ranks it beside the finest issues of the publishing houses of Boston 
and New York. This fact, however, is but the smallest element of interest that attaches 
to the volume. It is one of those noble contributions to natural science, in its relation 
to revealed religion, which in the writings of Hugh Miller, King, Brewster, and others 
have conferred new luster on the honored name of Scotland. * * * The concluding 
chapter is a sublime questioning of Geology, as to the testimony she gives to a Creator, 
somewhat after the manner of the Scholia, to Newton's Principia, and is one of the 
noblest portions of the work." — Richmond, Va., Watchman and Observer. 

"The science of Geology is attracting more and more attention. • * "• That 
whicn was once a gigantic chaos, has become developed into a system beautifully sym- 
metrical, and infinitely grand." — Mercantile Courier. 



MOORE & ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS. 
For the School Boom. 

The Course of Creation : By John Anderson, D. D., with a 

Glossary of Scientific Terms. 

" As a science, geology is scarcely fifty years old : yet now, for the 
interest which it excites, and the attention -which the best minds of Eu- 
rope and this country are giving to it, it yields to the claims of no other. 
The vast number of facts which it presents to all, and its conclusions 
in regard to the primal history of the soil, are absolutely amazing.— 
This subject is essentially a study for the masses. To 'the farmer it 
opens a source of exhaustless information and delight. From 
the hills and alluvial levels of his farm, from the rounded rocks 
lying about, from the turned up furrow, from the shoveled sand-bank, 
from the ledgy river brink, and perchance from a range of mountains 
standing near, geology speaks to him, and invites his attention to a 
world of wonders. The subject of geology is knitted into that of geo- 
graphy. It is our firm conviction, that within a few years geology and 
geography will be studied together in our common schools. 

" Dr. Anderson is an experienced geologist. His book shows him to 
be thoroughly enthusiastic, yet cautious in everything pertaining to the 
practical details of his favorite science. He commences by taking us 
among the gorges and rugged cliffs of his own native mountains. By 
his graphic powers of description, he makes us see their bald heads, 
and feel their dizzy heights. "When we have surveyed the scenery, be- 
yond description wild and grand, he takes us down to the lowest foun- 
dations of the mountains, and with a few blows of a hammer, lays open 
to view a page in the primeval histoiy of our globe. 

"We think it would be an excellent work for those schools in which 
the pupils are so far advanced as to be able to master the contents of 
popular scientific works by simple reading. Most of our Seminaries, 
Academies, and the highest departments of our Union schools, are of this 
class. Careful reading by the pupils, and judicious questioning by the 
teacher, would fix the main facts in the mind, and in the end, store the 
intellect with a kind of knowledge of which no liberally educated man, 
now-a-days, can be destitute." — School Friend. 

" It would make a good class book, and also serve a fine purpose in 
awakening an interest in the study." — N. Y. Evangelist. 

" This is a beautiful reprint of one of the most lucid, yet scientific 
expositions of geological phenomena with which we have had the good 
fortune to meet. Like his countryman, Hugh Miller, the author of the 
"Old Red Sandstone," and "Footprints of the Creator," Dr. Anderson, 
while discussing fairly yet forcibly the controverted points in geologi- 
cal science, shows conclusively that there is no real conflict between the 
discoveries of geology and the Divine record. The danger of material- 
ism and skepticism lies in tasting, not in drinking deep from this foun- 
tain of knowledge. Already the discoveries of the geologist have re- 
moved many points of difficulty, and further discoveries will lead to 
further adjustments, until at last, the two records will be found to har- 
monize, and, in the language of the author — who affirms that all the geo- 
logical phenomena which have passed under his review have uniformly 
led him "from Nature up to Nature's God" — "this interesting branch 
of knowledge will be brought from the outer court of the Gentiles to 
the innermost shrine of the temple of truth." — Washington Union. 



MOORE & ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS 

PULTE'S 

HOMOEOPATHIC DOMESTIC PHYSICIAN 

ILLUSTRATED WITH ANATOMICAL PLATES. 
N i u 1 1) ® I) it s a n . 

" A very lucid and useful hand-book. Its popular language, and exclu- 
sion of difficult terminology are decided recommendations. Its success is 
good evidence of the value of the work." — N. Y. Times. 

" This appears to be a very successful publication. It has now reached 
its third edition, which is a revised and enlarged one; and we learn from the 
title page that eight thousand copies have been published. Various addi- 
tions have been made to the Homoeopathic directions, and the anatomical 
part of the work has been illustrated with engravings. The work has re- 
ceived the approbation of several of our most eminent practitioners." — 
Evening Post. 

" A nicely printed volume, and it appears to be a finished one of its kind. 
It embraces all possible directions for the treatment of diseases, with elab- 
orate descriptions of symptoms, and an abridged Materia Medica." — Boston 
Post. 

" It is very comprehensive and very explicit." — N. Y. Evangelist. 

"Though not at present exclusively confined to the medical profession, we 
have been consulted, during the past year, in some fifty or sixty cases, 
some of which, according to the opinion of the far-sighted and sagacious, 
were very bad and about to die, and would die if trusted to Homoeopathy, 
and some were hopeless, which are now a wonder unto many in the change 
which the homoeopathic treatment alone effected. Now what of all this ? 
Why, just this, we have used Dr. Pulte's book for our Directory ; we have 
tested it as a safe counselor ; — and we say to our friends who have wished 
we would get up a book for them, just get Pulte's Domestic Physician and 
the remedies, and set up for yourselves." — Cattaraugus Clironicle. 

"I have recommended it to my patients as being — for conciseness, pre- 
cision, and practical utility — unsurpassed either in my native or adopted 
country." — Dr. Granger of St. Louis. 

" The plan and execution of Pulte's Homoeopathic Domestic Physician, 
render it in my opinion the best work of its kind extant for popular use. 

" ROBERT ROSMAN, M. D., 

"Brooklyn." 

"I have found, upon careful perusal, ' The Domestic Physician,' by Dr. 
Pulte, to be concise and comprehensive in its description of diseases, and 
accurate in the application of remedies; bat its chief advantage over othei 
works of the same design, appears to me, to be the facility with which it is 
understood by the lay practitioner. I consider it a valuable and useful book 
of reference in domestic practice. The professional ability and extensive 
practical experience of the author, are alone sufficient recommendation for 
its value. A. COOKE HULL, M. D., 

76 State St., Brooklyn. 



M O O R E & ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS, 



STRAWRERRY AND GRAPE CULTURE. 

MOORE & ANDERSON have just published a small volume 
of one hundred and forty-two pages, 12 mo., entitled The Cul- 
ture of the Grape and Wine Making, by Robert Buchanan, 
Member of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, with an Ap- 
pendix, containing Directions for the Cultivation of the 
Strawberry, by N. Longworth. Put up for sending by mail, 
in flexible cloth ; price 50 cents ; cloth, usual style, 62^- cents. 
This volume should be in the hands of every cultivator of these delicious 
fruits. For it embodies, in a compact and available form, the experience of 
accomplished and practical Horticulturists on subjects which have come di- 
rectly under their own observation for a long series of years. 

Of a former edition of "Buchanan on the Grape," published by the 
author, mainly for the convenience of himself and his friends, we subjoin 
a few 

NOTICES OF THE PRESS. 

Mr. Downing, in his Horticulturist says : " It deals more with facts, ac- 
tual experience, and observation, and less with speculation, supposition and 
belief, than anything on this topic that has yet appeared in the United States. 
In other words, a man may take it, and plant a vineyard, and raise grapes 
with success. 

"Furnishes, in a small space, a very great amount of instructive informa- 
tion relative to the culture of the Grape. — Farmer's and Planter's Encyclo- 
paedia. 

"Will be found to convey the most opportune and valuable instruction, 
to all interested in the subject." — Neill's Fruit and Flower Garden. 

MOORE & ANDERSON, Publishers, 

28 West Fourth Street, Cincinnati. 



BORROWS ROVING ADVENTURES; By Geo. Borrow, 
Author of "The Gipsies in Spain," "The Bible in Spain," etc. 
With fine portrait. Large type. Complete in one beautiful oc- 
tavo volume. Pp. 550. 

"He colors like Rembrandt, and draws like Spagnoletti." — Edinburgh 
Review. 

"The pictures are so new that those best acquainted with England will 
find it hard to recognize the land they may have traveled over." — National 
Intelligencer. 

" We could hardly sleep at night for thinking of it." — Blackwood, 



MOORE & ANDERSONS PUBLICATIONS, 



SERVICE AFLOAT AND ASHORE: By, Lieut. Raphael 

Semmes, U. S. N. 

"Unlike most similar works, this has no one hero, unless the natural 
partiality manifested for General Worth, may be considered as giving 
him a more marked elevation. It is neither adorned nor disfigured with 
vulgar anecdotes, to gratify a morbid love of the marvelous. The 
author writes right on : like a man who seeks to tell the truth. He crit- 
icises freely, whatever, high or low, his Sailor's eye deems worthy 
of comment. The intelligent reader will be pleased with the fraukness 
and independence of the writer." — Newark Daily Advertiser. 

" He was early engaged in the blockade of the Mexican ports, and 
narrowly escaped death while in command of the Somers ; afterward, 
through fortuitous circumstances, he became a participant in, and 
observer of, nearly all the stirring incidents in General Scott's triumph- 
ant march to the Capital. * * * Lieut. Semmes possesses the fac- 
ulty of describing comprehensively, intricate occurrences, and seizes 
upon the prominent points of a field of battle, and presents them in such 
a manner that we are, as it were eye witnesses of the scene. We have 
rarely read a work, put forward with so little pretension, so intrinsi- 
cally valuable." — Mobile Daily Advertiser. 

" This is an elegant volume in every respect. * * * The work 
is written with great spirit, taste and ability. We have seen no work 
which has given us such vivid impressions of Mexican scenery and char- 
acter, or the events of General Scott's campaign. * * * He has thrown 
around the country, the people, and the expedition, a flood of illumina- 
tion from the historians of the Spanish march and conquests over the 
same regions. * * * The whole book inspires and sustains an inter- 
est of which the reader can form no opinion, unless he goes through, 
which he will not fail to do, if he begins." — Southern Press. 

" Calm, deliberate, and intelligent, as he is, he cannot entirely con- 
ceal his personal preferences. He has, notwithstanding, furnished the 
very best book which that war has called forth, and, with remarkable in- 
telligence and skill, has interwoven the events of the war with saga- 
cious observations on the country and people." — Phil. Presbyterian. 

" A beautiful and very interesting volume, which, from the glances 
we have had time to give it, appears to be written with much ability, 
and to afford the reader a great deal of valuable information in regard 
to the war, the country, and the people." — Bait. American. 

" A most interesting addition to the literature of a war, odious in its 
origin, as it was triumphant in its progress, and happy in its conse- 
quences." — Puritan Recorder. 

" It is written with a spirit and life that commend it to perusal." — 
N. Y. Observer. 

" An accomplished writer as well as gallant officer." — Philadelphia 
Observer. 

" It is difficult, after having commenced z'^s perusal, to lay it aside 
before finishing it." — Norfolk Daily News. 



MOORE & ANDERSON'S PUBLICATIONS. 

SERVICE AFLOAT AND ASHORE during the Mexican 
War: By Lieut. Raphael Semmes, U. S. N., late Flag- 
Lieutenant of the Home Squadron, and Aid-de-camp of 
Major-General Worth, in the battles of the Valley of Mexico. 
1 vol. 8vo, $1.75. Illustrated with numerous lithographs, 
in beautiful style, by Onken, and an official map. 

" He has given to the public a very attractive "work upon Mexico 
itself, as "well as upon the Mexican "war." — Charleston (S. C.) Standard. 

" His original descriptions are drawn "with great felicity. He is a 
lively and spirited narrator. His battle sketches are extremely vivid, 
and produce a deep impression on the imagination. His pictures of 
social and domestic life in Mexico are apparently true to nature, and 
present the attractions of a romance — criticises the military operations 
in a decided partisan spirit, but "with evident ability." — N. Y. Tribune. 

"He is bold, capable, and courageous. He can wield a pen or a 
sword "with admirable force and dexterity. * * * As a writer, Lieut 
Semmes is clear and cogent. The first forty pages of the volume arc 
occupied with a description of Mexico, its government and people ; and 
we know of no description of the kind, which brings the condition of 
things in that unhappy country so distinctly before the mind of the 
reader. The whole volume, as a work of intellect, is "worthy of a high 
place in the department to which it belongs." — Louisville Journal. 

"In remarking upon the various battles and military movements, it 
indulges neither in indiscriminate praise nor indiscriminate censure. — 
It lauds everybody for something, but none for everything. * * * 
General Scott is often and highly praised for his surpassing abilities — 
for what lie did do in the cause of his country ; yet, Lieut. Semmes asserts 
that the battle of Churubusco, and its consequent slaughter, was entirely 
unnecessary, and brings forward arguments to sustain his assertion. — 
He also declares, and brings evidence to the truth of the declaration, 
that General Scott understood nothing of the real use or strength of the 
Molinos del Rcy, which were so bloodily defended by the Mexicans, and 
that time and again our successes were owing to the personal ability 
and valor of subordinates, and not to the much-vaunted foresight and 
science of the commander-in-chief. With all this, there is no virulence 
or indiscriminate fault-finding. Lieut. Semmes' book differs from all 
that have preceded it, and must attract attention. We say, " God defend 
the right," but let us know what right is, and give honor to whom honor 
is due." — Boston Post. 

" Sailors are said to be persons of strong prejudices. And it is no 
small praise to the author, to say that we have never read a history evi- 
dently sck fairly written, with regard to the merits of the numerous 
claimants of military glory. * * * We shall take our sailor and 
soldier out of the ranks, and see what he has to tell of a more amusing 
nature than battle fields. * * * After sailing about the Gulf, and 
cruising from Vera Cruz to Mexico and back again with our author, we 
have arrived at the conclusion that he is as pleasant a companion as one 
might desire upon a similar journey, and so commend him to the favor 
of the reading public." — Literary World. 



WILLIAM II. MOORE 4 COS 1TRLI0ATI0NS. 



RELIGIOUS AND THEOLOGICAL. 



AMERICAN BIBLICAL REPOSITORY. 

12 volumes bound in half Calf, or Russia. $45 00. 

These volumes contain the whole of this valuable Quarterly while conducted by Pro- 
fessor Robinson and B B Edwards. The mutter is invaluable to clergymen and students 
of the Bible, and can be found in no other form. A few *ctts only, remain perfect. 

APPLETON'S WORKS. 

The Works of Jesse Appleton, D.D., late President of Bowdoin College, embracing 
his course of Theological Lectures, his Academic Addresses, and a selection from his 
Sermons ; with a Memoir of his Life and Character. 2 vols, octavo, Muslin. $4 00. 
These published writings of Dr. Appleton have placed him in the highest rank of the 
theological and ethical writers of our country. 

BLANCHARD AND RICE'S DEBATE ON SLAVERY. 

Held in the city of Cincinnati, in October, 1845. Tiro thousand copies of this 
work were sold in six weeks after its publication. 1 vol., 12mo. Price $1. 

BUSH'S NOTES ON THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

Genesis, 2 vols ; Jsxodus, 2 vols. ; Leviticus, 1 vol. 75 cents per vol. 

These Notes are explanatory, critical, and practical. 

No writer on the Books of the Old Testament has occupied the ground more ably and 
successfully than Prof Bush in these volumes. 

CAMPBELL'S NOTES ON THE FOUR GOSPELS. 

Translated from the Greek, with preliminary Dissertations, and Notes Critical and 
Explanatory, from the latest London edition. 2 vols, octavo, Muslin. Si 50. 

CUDWORTH'S COMPLETE WORKS. 

The True Intellectual System of the Universe, wherein all the reason and philoso- 
phy of Atheism is confuted, and its impossibility demonstrated. A Treatise on Im- 
mutable Morality, with a Discourse concerning the true notion of the Lord's Sup- 
per; and two Sermons on 1 John, ii. 3, 4— and 1 Cor. xv. 27. First American edi- 
tion, with References to the several Quotations in the Intellectual System, and an 
Account of the Life and Writings of the Author. By Thomas Birch, M.A. 2 large 
octavo vols., Muslin. $6 00. 

The Intellectual System of Dr Cudworth is justly reckoned the most valuable treasure 
Of ancient Theology and Philosophy extant i:i any language ; it is truly called, " An im- 
mense storehouse of facts, of arguments, and principles." 

DAVIES' SERMONS. 

Sermons on Important Subjects, by the Rev. Samuel Da vies, President of the Col- 
lege of New Jersey, with an Essay on the Life and Times of the Author, by Albert 
Barnes. 3 vols, thick 12mo. $2 25. 

The Sermons of President Davics are nmonj the finest models for the pulpit, of the day 
in which he lived, a day tilled with ureat names in the Church; they are worthy to be 
studied by every man who has a call to the sacred office. 

OUFHELD ON THE PROPHECIES. 

Dissertations on the Prophecies, relative to the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. By 
George Dctfield, Pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Detroit. 434 pages 
12mo, Musin. $100. 
Dr. Duffidd is known to be a strong and original thinker, and a vigorous and beautifu 



WTtTJAM II. MOORE A CO S PUBUCTAIONS 



DUFFIELD'S REPLY TO PROF, STUART'S STRICTURES 

On his recent work, on the Second Coming of Christ, in which his (Prof. Stuart's) 
false assumptions are pointed out, and the fallacy of his interpretation of different 
important passages of Scripture is both Philosophically and Exegetically exposed 
183 pages, 12mo, Muslin. 50 cents. 

EDWARDS ON THE WILL. 

An Inquiry into the Modern prevailing notions respecting that Freedom of the Will, 
which is supposed to be essential to Moral Agency, Virtue and Vice, Rewards and 
Punishments, Praise and Blame. By Jonathan Edwards. With an Index. 432 

pages, 12mo, Sheep. $1 00. 

ERNESTI ON INTERPRETATION, 

Accompanied by Notes, with an Appendix containing Extracts from Morris, Beck, 
Kcil, and Henderson. By Moses Stkwart, of Andover. Fourth edition. 142 
pages, half cloth, 12mo. 50 cents. 

This is the standard work on Bible Interpretation, and is the textbook in our best The- 
ological institutions. 

FORM OF GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE OF THE PRESBYTE- 
RIAN CHURCH in the United States of America. 1vol. 18mo, Muslin. 31 cents. 

THE GREAT AWAKENING. 

A History of the Revival of Religion in the time of Edwards and Whitfield. By 
Joseph Tract. 1 vol. 8vo, 433 pages, Muslin. $2 00. 

GURNEY ON THE SA38ATH. 

Brief Remarks on the History, Authority, and Use of the Sabbath. By John Jo- 
seph Qv'RNKT, with Notes by Moses Stuart, D.D., of Andover, Mass. 25 cents. 

This is an able atnl manly defence of the Christian Sabbath, by a prominent member of 
the Society of Friends. It cannot fail to be read with interest by every friend of the 
Lord's Day. 

HISTORY OF THE WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES, 

By Jamks Hetherington, Author of the History of the Church of Scotland. 12mo, 
312 pages. 38 cents. 

This is a true and faithful History of that able body of Divines, by whose labors were 
produced, the Confession of Faith, the Directory of Public Worship, the Form of Church 
Government, and the Catechisms which have so long been held as the Standards of the 
Presbyterian Church in all parts of the world. It is a book worthy of a place in the li- 
brary of every Evangelical Christian. 

HUG'S INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Translated from the Third German Edition, by David Fosdick, Jr. ; with Notes by 
M. Stewart, Prof., &c, Andover. 780 pages, octavo. $3 00. 

This work has Ions been held in the highest repute in Germany. Gesenius says of the 
Author: " He excels all his predecessors in deep and fundamental investigations." The 
translator has well performed his task. 

KITTO'S CYCLOP/EDI A OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 

A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature. By John Kitto, D.D., F.S.A., &c. Assisted 
by numerous able Scholars and Divines — British, Continental, and American, 
whose Initials are affixed to their respective Contributions. Complete in 2 vols, of 
700 pages each, and substantially bound. $6 50. 

This work contains such information as is indispensable for the right understanding of 
the Bible and its historical interpretation It comprehends Criticism, Geography, Natural 
History and Antiquities, in all their branches, religious, political, social anil domestic . 

The works of Horn, Calmet and others are now found to be wholly inadequate to tho 
wants of the student. Theoolgical science is progressive, as well as every other ; ami the 
"old learning" of the "Bible Dictionaries" which have for so long a time been in use, is 
felt to be unequal to the advancement of mankind at the present time. 

The efforts of the German Rationalists of the Strauss-school, to resolve all the facts of 
Bible History into myths and fables, has awakened a corresponding spirit of research 
among sound and Christian scholars ; a determination to place the Scriptures upon a basia 



WILLIAM H. MOORE <fc Co's PU3LICTAI0N8. 

of indisputable evidence. The result has been, the discovery anil accumulation of a mass 
of information from every portion of the field of biblical learning. A multitude of new, 
striking and most useful facts have thus been placed at the disposal of the editor of this 
work He has accordingly availed himself of all the latest discoveries down to the veiy 
year of its publication. 

Nor is the Cyclopaedia compiled by one man alone. Dr. Kitto distributed the subjects 
discussed, to more than forty different indivil.ti.als, of the first eminence in those de- 
partments Their names are attached to their articles, and they are thus individually re- 
sponsible for them. The Natural History of the Bible was written expressly for this 
work, by two distinguished Naturalists. The Botany of Scripture by Dr. Royle, of Kin.-'s 
College, London The articles on Scriptural Zoology, by Hamilton Smith, President of the 
Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society. The articles in the department of Criticism, 
hy Dr Davidson, Professor of Biblical Literature in the Lancashire Independent College. 
Those on the Books of the Old and New Testament, by Havernich, Hengstenberg, Dr. 
Wright of Dublin, and others. 

The articles on the New Testament were furnished by Dr. Tholuck, Dr. Alexander, and 
others. 

Various subjects are discussed by Dr. John Pye Smith, Dr. Woods of Andover, and others. 

The Scriptural Geography exhibits the results of Dr Robinson's biblical researches in 
Palestine. 

It will be seen therefore, that the work is a compilation of biblical learning, by the ablest 
biblical scholars of the age. 

The departments which the Editor reserved for himself were those of Antiquities, Re- 
igion, Social and Political, together with Geography; each ol which he has well and ably 
rilled. It only remains to add a few extracts from the numerous able reviews, criticisms and 
notices, which have appeared respecting this great and valuable work. 

"This Cyclopaedia surpasses every Biblical Dictionary which has preceded it, and leaves 
nothing to be desired in such a work which can throw light on the criticism, interpreta- 
tion, history, geography, archaeology, and physical science of the Bible." — Home, Autlicr 
of " Home's Introduction to the Stud// of the Scriptures " 

" The limits of a notice, like the present, forbid such a description of this learned work 
as its merits deserve, or sufficient to give the reader a just idea of its plan. We regard it 
a most important and practically useful contribution to the cause of sound biblical learn- 
ing, and have no doubt that it will soon take the place, in the estimate of scholars, of every 
compilation of the kind."— Biblical Repository 

The publishers ask me attention of students of the Bible to the Cyclopaedia, in full 
confidence that no one acquainted with its character will suffer himself to be without a 
copy. The low price at which it is offered, (less than hall the price of the English edi 
tiou.) places it within the reach of all. 

PORTER'S HOMELETICS. 

Lectures on Ilomeletics and Preaching, and on Public Prayer ; together with Ser- 
mons and Letters. By Ebenezer Porter, D.D., President of the Theological 
Seminary, Andover. Second Edition. 418 pages, 12mo, Muslin. $1 25. 
A book that should be in the hands of every Student of Theology and every Clergyman. 

ROMANISM NOT CHRISTIANITY; 

A series of Popular Lectures, in which Popery and Protestantism are contrasted ; 
showing the incompatibility of the former with Freedom and Free Institutions. 
By N. L. Rice, D. D., Pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati. 
EmbelJlihed with a fine Portrait of the author, engraved on steel, by Jewett. 1 
vol. 12mo. $1. 

_* # This work lias received the highest praise from the Religious papers 
throughout the Union. It has been published less than two months, yet over 
two thousand have been disposed of, and the demand is on the increase. 



TYNDALE'S TESTAMENT. 

The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. By William Tyndalf , 
the Martyr ; printed from the original edition, 152S ; being the first vernacular trans- 
lation from the Greek : with a Memoir of his Life and Writings. To which are an- 
nexed, the essential variations of Coverdale's, Thomas Matthew's, Cranmer's, the 
Genevan, and the Bishops' Bibles, as Marginal Readings. By J. P. Dabnet. 12mo. 
$2 00. 

This original book is highly valuable to every Clergyman. Often the translation of Tyn- 
dale is so lucid and vigorous as to afford an excellent commentary on the common transla- 
tion. The text is from the London edition of Bagster, and the additions of the variations 
by Mr. Dabney add greatly to the value of this edition. 



wM>mwMmmm mmmmrn® 



FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF ENGLAND AND ITS PEOPLE, by Hugh Millee, 
author of " Old lied Sandstone," " Foot Prints of the Creator," etc., with a likeness of 
the author. 12mo, cloth,. . . .1,00 

SCENES AND LEGENDS OF THE NORTH OF SCOTLAND, by Hugh 
Miller. 12mo, cloth. 

CRUDEN'S CONDENSED CONCORDANCE; a new and complete Concordance 
to the Holy Scriptures. By Alexander Cruden. Revised and re-edited, by David 

King, D. D. Seventh thousand. 8vo, cloth backs,.... 1,25 

sheep,.... 1,50 

" The present Edition is better adapted to the purposes of a Concordance, by the erasure of super- 
fluous references, the omission of unnecessary explanations, and the contraction of quotations. It 
is better as a manual, and is better adapted by its price than the former larger and expensive edition." 

SACRED RHETORIC ; or, Composition and Delivery of Sermons. By H. J. Ripley, 
D. D., Professor in Newton Theological Institution. To which are added, Dr. Ware's 
Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching. Second thousand. 12mo, cloth, .... ,75 

ANCIENT LITERATURE AND ART. The Importance of the Study of the Greek 
and Roman Classics. Miscellaneous Essays on subjects connected with Classical Litera- 
ture, with the Biography and Correspondence of eminent Philologists. By Professor B. 
Sears, Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education, Prof. B. B. Edwards, of Andover, 
and Prof. C. C. Felton, of Cambridge. Second thousand. 12mo, cloth, . . . .1,25 

MODERN FRENCH LITER ATUR E, (Chambers' People's Edition,) by L. Raymond 
De Verioour ; Revised, with Notes, alluding particularly to writers prominent in late 
political events at Paris. By William Staughton Chase, A. M. Second thousand. 
With afine portrait of Lamartine. 12mo, '. cloth,.... 1,25 

" This is the only complete treatise of the kind on this subject, either in French or English, and 
has received the highest commendation." — If. Y. Evening Post. 

THOUGHTS ON THE PRESENT COLLEGIATE SYSTEM in the United States. 
By Francis Wayland, D. D., President of Brown University. 16mo,.... cloth,.... ,50 

THE MARRIAGE RING; or, How to make Home Happy. From the writings of John 
Angell James. Beautiful Illustrated Edition. 16mo, cloth, gilt,.... ,75 

ON ESI M US ; or, the Apostolic Directions to Christian Masters, in reference to their 
Slaves, considered. By Evangelicus, cloth, .... ,25 

CHRISTIANITY AND SLAVERY. A Review of Drs. Fuller and Wayland on 
Slavery. By Wm. Hague, D. D. 18mo, paper cover, ... . ,12>£ 

CHRISTIANITY AND SLAVERY. Strictures on the Rev. Dr. Hague's Review of 
Drs. Fuller and Wayland on Domestic Slavery. By the Rev. Thomas Meredith, 
Raleigh, N. C. ISmo, paper,.... ,12 ^ 

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY; containing a descriptive account of Quadru- 
peds, Birds, Fishes, Insects, Reptiles, Serpents, Plants, Trees, Minerals, Gems, and 
Precious Stones, mentioned in the Bible. By William Carpenter, London ; with 
Improvements, by Rev. G. D. Abbott. Illustrated by numerous engravings. Also. 
Sketches of Palestine. 12mo, cloth,. . . .1,00 

THE CHRISTIAN REVIEW. Edited by James D. Knowles. Barnas Sears, and 
S. F. Smith. 8 vols., half cloth, lettered,.... 8,00 

Single volumes, (except the first,) may be had in numbers, 1,00 

OSS- The Christian Review contains valuable contributions from the leading men of the Baptist 
and several other denomination and is a valuable acquisition to any library. 



ELEMENTS OF MORAL SCIENCE, by Francis Wayland, D. D., President of 
Brown University, and Professor of Moral Philosophy. Forty-seventh thousand. — 
12mo cloth,.... 1,25 

MORAL SCIENCE ABRIDGED, and adapted to the use of Schools and Academies, by 
the Author. Thirtieth thousand, halfmor.... ,50 

The same, Cheap School Edition, boards,.... ,25 

This work is used in the Boston Schools, and is exceedingly popular as a text book wherever it 
has been adopted. 

ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL EC NO MY, by Francis Watland, D. D. Twenty- 
first thousand, 12nio, cloth, . ... 1,25 

POLITICAL ECONOMY ABRIDGED, and adapted to the use of Schools and 
Academies, by the Author. Seventh thousand, half mor ,50 

The above works by Dr. Wayland, are used as Text Books in most of the Colleges and higher 
Schools throughout the Union, and ore highly approved. 

PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOGY. llustrated by forty Plates, with selections 
from the Notes of Dr. Paxton, and additional Notes, original and selected, with a Vocab- 
ulary of Scientific Terms. Edited by John Ware, M. D. 12mo halfmor 1,25 

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES AND ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY; by C. K. DlXLAWAr. 
Illustrated by elegant Engravings. Eighth edition, improved. 12mo. .half mor. ... ,67 

THE YOUNG LADIES' CLASS BOOK ; a Selection of Lessons for Reading, in 
Prose and Verse. By Ebenezer Bailet, A. M. Fifty-second edition,.. half mor 84 

BLAKE'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; being Conversations on Philosophy, with 
Explanatory Notes, Questions for Examination, and a Dictionary of Philosophical Terms, 
with twenty-eight steel Engravings. By J. L. Blake, D. D.,. sheep. ... ,67 

BLAKE'S FIRST BOOK IN ASTRONOMY : designed for the use of Common 

Schools. Illustrated with steel-plate Engravings. By John L. Blake, D. D, 

half bound ,50 

FIRST LESSONS IN INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY; or a Familiar Explan- 
ation of the Nature and Operations of the Human Mind. By Silas Blaisdale, 

sheep,.... ,84 

THE CICERONIAN; or, the Prussian Method of Teaching the Elements of the 
Latin Language. Adapted to the use of American Schools. By Professor B. Sears, 
Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education. 18mo, half mor. ... ,50 

MEMORIA TECHNICA; or, the Art of Abbreviating those Studies which give the 
greatest labor to the Memory ; including Numbers, Historical Dates, Geography, Astron- 
omy, Gravities, &c. By L. D. Johnson. Second edition, revised and improved, 

half bound,.... .,50 

PROGRESSIVE PENMANSHIP, Plain and Ornamental, for the use of Schools. By 

N. D. Gould, author of " Beauties of Writing," " Writing Master's Assistant," etc 

in five parts, each. . . . ,12>£ 

Letter Sheet Size of the above in four books, stiff covers, each. ... ,20 

The copies are arranged in progressive series, and are likewise so diversified by the introduction 
of variations in style, so as to command the constant attention and exercise the ingenuity of the 
learner, thus removing some of the most serious obstacles to the success of the teacher. They are 
divided into five series, intended for the like number of books, and are so arranged and folded 
that a copy always comes over the top of the page on which it is to be written. 

There are ninety-six copies, presenting a regular inductive system of Penmanship for ordinary 
business purposes, followed by examples of every variety of Ornamental Writing. 

»y This work is introduced into many of the Boston Public and Private Schools, and gives 
universal satisfaction. 

WRITI NG COPIES, Plain and Ornamental, from the "Progressive Penmanship," bound 
in one book, t 16% 



VALUABLE WORKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

MOORE & ANDERSON, 

28 WEST FOURTH STREET, CINCINNATI. 



ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY FOR 1850: or, Year-Book of Facts in 
Science and Art, exhibiting the most important discoveries and improvements in Mechan- 
ics, Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Astronomy, Meteorology Zoology 
Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, Geography, Antiquities, &c. ; together with a list of recent 
Scientific Publications ; a classified list of Patents ; obituaries of eminent Scientific Men ; 
an index of important papers in Scientific Journals, reports, &c. Edited by David A. 
Wells, and George Bliss, Jr. With Portrait of Prof. Agassiz. 12mo,.. cloth,.... 1,25 

paper covers,. . . .1,00 

This work will be issued annually, and the reading public may easily and promptly possess 
themselves of the most important facts discovered or announced in these departments. 

As it is not intended for scientific men exclusively, but to meet the wants of the general reader, 
it has been the aim of the Editors that the articles should be brie/ and intelligible to all. The 
Editors have received the approbation, counsel and personal contributions of Professors Agassiz, 
Horsford, and Wyman, of Harvard University, and many other scientific gentlemen. 

THE ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY, FOR 1851 A ISSJKby David A. 
Wells, and George Bliss, Jr. With Portrait of Prof. Silliman. 12mo, . .cloth,. . . .1,25 

Paper covers, . . . .1,00 
is- Each volume of the above work is distinct in itself, and contains entirely new matter. 

THE POETRY OF SCIENCE; or, The Physical Phenomena of Nature. By Robert 
Hum, author of "Panthea," "Researches of Light," etc. First American, from the 
second London edition. 12mo, cloth, ... .1,25 

" The author, while adhering to true science, has set forth its truths in an exceedingly captivating 
style." — Commercial Advertiser. 

" We are heartily glad to see this interesting work re-published in America. It is a book that it 
a book." — Scientific American. 

" It is one of the most readable, interesting, and instructive works of the kind, that we have ever 
seen." — Phil. Christian Observer. 

CYCLOP/EDIA OF ANECDOTES OF LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS. 

Containing a copious and choice selection of Anecdotes of the various forms of Literature, 
of the Arts, of Architecture, Engravings, Music, Poetry, Painting and Sculpture, and or 
the most celebrated Literary Characters and Artists of different countries and Ages, etc. 
By Kazlitt Arvjne, A. M., author of " Cyclopaedia of Moral and Religious Anecdotes," 
octavo, cloth. 

CYCLOP/EDIA OF SCIENTIFIC ANECDOTES, containing a selection respecting 
the various Sciences and Mechanical Arts, and of their most distinguished Votaries. By 
Kazlitt Arvdje, A. M., author of " Cyclopaedia of Moral and Religious Anecdotes." 
One volume, cloth. 

The two works together, will embrace the best Anecdotes in Ancient and Modern collections, as 
well as in various Histories, Biographies and Files of Periodical Literature, $-c. The whole classified 
under appropriate subjects, alphabetically arranged, and each supplied with a very full and 
particular Index of topics and names. Both the above volumes will first be published in numbers 
—sixteen in all, at 25 cents each — making together two large octavo volumes, of about 700 pages 
each, illustrated with numerous fine engravings. The first number will be issued about the first 
of April, to be continued semi-monthly until completed. 



THE EARTH AND MAN: Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography, in its 
relation to the History of Mankind. By Arnold Guyot, Professor of Physical Geography 
and History, Neuchatel. Translated from the French, by Prof. C. C. Felton, with illus- 
trations. Second thousand. 12mo, cloth,.... 1,25 

" Those who have been accustomed to regard Geography as a merely descriptive branch of learn - 
.ng, drier than the remainder biscuit after a voyage, will be delighted to find tliis hitherto un- 
attractive pursuit converted into a science, the principles of which are definite and the results 
conclusive." — North American Review. 

" The grand idea of the work is happily expressed by the author, where he calls it the geograph- 
ical march of history. Faith, science, learning, poetry, taste, in a word, genius, have liberally 
contributed to the production of the work under review. Sometimes we feel as if we were 
studying a treatise on the exact sciences ; at others, it strikes the ear like an epic poem. Now it 
reads like history, and now it sounds like prophecy. It will find readers in whatever language 
it may be published." — Christian Examiner. 

" The work is one of high merit, exhibiting a wide range of knowledge, great research, and a 
philosophical spirit of investigation. Its perusal will well repay the most learned in such subjects, 
and give new views to all, of man's relation to the globe he inhabits." — Silliman's Journal. 

COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; or, the 

Study of the Earth and its Inhabitants. A series of graduated courses for the use of 
Schools. By Arnold Guyot, author of " Earth and Man," etc. 

The series hereby announced will consist of three courses, adapted to the capacity of three dif- 
ferent ages and periods of study. The first is intended for primary schools, and for children of 
from seven to ten years. The second is adapted for higher schools, and for young persons of from 
ten to fifteen years. The third is to be used as a scientific manual in Academies and Colleges. 

Each course will be divided into two parts, one of purely Physical Geography, the otner for Eth- 
nography, Statistics, Political and Historical Geography. Each part will be illustrated by a colored 
Physical and Political Atlas, prepared expressly for this purpose, delineating, with the greatest 
care, the configuration of the surface, and the other physical phenomena alluded to in the corres- 
ponding work, the distribution of the races of men, and the political divisions into States, $rc, $rc. 

The two parts of the first or preparatory course are now in a forward state of preparation, and 
will be issued at an early day. 

MURAL MAPS: a series of elegant colored Maps, exhibiting the Physical Phenomena 
of the Globe. Projected on a large scale, and intended to be suspended in the Recitation 
Room. By Arnold Guyot [in preparation] 

KITTO'S POPULAR CYCLOP/EDIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. Con- 
densed from the larger work. By John Kitto, D. D., F. S. A., author of " The Pictoral 
Bible," "History and Physical Geography of Palestine," Editor of "The Journal of 
Sacred Literature," etc. Assisted by numerous distinguished Scholars and Divines, 
British, Continental and American. With numerous illustrations. One volume, 
octavo, 812pp cloth, 3,00 

The Popular Bielical Cyclop.edia of Literature is designed to furnish a Dictionary 
of the Bible, embodying the products of the best and most recent researches in Biblical Liter- 
ature, in which the Scholars of Europe and America have been engaged. The work, the result 
of immense labor and research, and enriched by the contributions of writers of distinguished 
eminence in the various departments of Sacred Literature, — has been, by universal consent, 
pronounced the best work of its class extant ; and the one best suited to the advanced knowledge 
of the present day in all the studies connected with Theological Science. 

The Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature from which this work is condensed by the author, is 
published in two volumes, rendering it about twice the size of the present work, and is intended, 
says the author, more particularly for Ministers and Theological Students ; while the Popular 
Cii'lopcedia is intended for Parents, Sabbath School Teachers, and the great body of the religious 
public. It has been the author's aim to avoid imparting to the work any color of sectarian or 
denominational bias. On such points of difference among Christians, the Historical mode of 
treatment has been adopted, and care has been taken to provide a fair account of the arguments 
which have seemed most conclusive to the ablest advocates of the various opinions. The Pictoral 
Illustrations — amounting to more than three hundred — are of the very highest order of the art. 



WMmwMmmm ®mmwwwm mmmmm® 

THE FOOT-PRINTS OF THE CREATOR ; or, the Asterolepsis of Stromness. 
with numerous illustrations. By Hugh Miller, author of " The Old Red Sandstone," 
&c. From the third London Edition. With a Memoir of the author, by Louis Aoassiz. 
12mo, cloth, 1,00 

Dr. Buckland, at a meeting of the British Association, said he had never been so much aston- 
ished in his life, by the powers of any man, as he had been by the geological descriptions of Mr. 
Miller. That wonderful man described these objects with a facility which made him ashamed of 
the comparative meagreness and poverty of his own descriptions in the " Bridgewater Treatise." 
which had cost him hours and days of labor. He would give his left hand to possess such powers 
of description as this man; and if it pleased Providence to spare his useful life, he, if any one, 
would certainly render science attractive and popular, and do equal service to theology and geology. 

" Mr. Miller's style is remarkably pleasing; his mode of popularizing geological knowledge un- 
surpassed, perhaps unequalled; and the deep reverence for Divine Revelation pervading all, adds 
interest and value to the volume." — A'ew York Com. Advertiser. 

"The publishers have again covered themselves with honor, by giving to the American public, 
with the Author's permission, an elegant reprint of a foreign work of science. We earnestly 
bespeak for this work a wide and free circulation, among all who love science much and religion 
more." — Puritan Recorder. 

THE OLD RED SANDSTONE ; or, New Walks in an Old Field. By Hugh Miller. 
Illustrated with Plate3 and Geological Sections. 12mo, cloth,. . . .1,00 

"Mr. Miller's exceedingly interesting book on this formation is just the sort of work to render 
any subject popular. It is written in a remarkably pleasing style, and contains a wonderful 
amount of information." — Westminster Review. 

" It is withal, one of the most beautiful specimens of English composition to be found, convey- 
ing information on a most difficult and profound science, in a style at once novel, pleasing and 
elegant. It contains the results of twenty years close observation and experiment, resulting in an 
accumulation of facts, which not only dissipate some dark and knotty old theories with regard to 
ancient formations, but establish the great truths of geology in more perfect and harmonious con- 
sistency with the great truths of revelation." — Albany Spectator. 

PRINCIPLES OF ZOOLOGY : Touching the Structure, Development, Distribution, 
and Natural Arrangement of the Races of Animals living and extinct, with numerous 
illustrations. For the use of Schools and Colleges. Part I., Comparative Physiology. 
By Louis Agassiz and Augustus A. Gould. Revised edition. T2mo,. . .cloth, 1,00 

" This work places us in possession of information half a century in advance of all our elemen- 
tary works on this subject. * * No work of the same dimensions has ever appeared in the 
English language, containing so much new and valuable information on the subject of which it 
treats." — Prof. James Hall, in the Albany Journal. 

"A work emanating from so high a source hardly requires commendation to give it currency. 
The volume is prepared for the student in zoological science; it is simple and elementary in its 
style, full in its illustrations, comprehensive in its range, yet well condensed, and brought into the 
narrow compass requisite for the purpose intended." — Silliman's Journal. 

" The work may safely be recommended as the best book of the kind in our language." — Chris- 
tian Examiner. 

" It is not a mere book, but a work — a real work in the form of a book. Zoology is an interesting 
science, and here is treated with a masterly hand. The history, anatomical structure, the nature 
and habits of numberless animals, are described in clear and plain language and illustrated with 
innumerable engravings. It is a work adapted to colleges and schools, and no young man should 
be without it." — Scientific American. 

PRINCIPLES OF ZOOLOGY, PART II. Systematic Zoology, in which the Prin- 
ciples of Classification are applied, and the principal groups of animals are briefly 
characterized. With numerous illustrations. 12mo,... [in preparation] 



7&HA8M mmwMTmm m@m.mw>* 



LAKE SUPERIOR : its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared with 
those of other and similar regions, by L. Agassiz, and contributions from other eminent 
Scientific Gentlemen. With a Narrative of the Expedition, and illustrations by J. E. 
Cabot. One volume octavo, elegantly illustrated, .cloth, . . . .3,50 

The illu«tration9, seventeen in number, are in the finest style of the art, by Sonrel ; embracing 
Lake and Landscape Scenery, Fishes, and other objects of Natural History, with an outline map 
of Lake Superior. 

This work is one of the most valuable scientific works that has appeared in this country. 
Embodying the researches of our best scientific men, relating to a hitherto comparatively unknown 
region, it will be found to contain a great amount of scientific information. 

CHAMBERS' CYCLOP/EDIA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. A Selection of 
the choicest productions of English Authors, from the earliest to the present time. 
Connected by a Critical and Biographical History. Forming two large imperial octavo 
volumes of 700 pages each, double column letter press ; with upwards of 300 elegant 

Illustrations. Edited by Robert Chambers, embossed cloth 5,00 

cloth, full gilt, extra,. . . .7,50 
sheep, extra, raised bands,. . . .6,00 

The work embraces about one thousand Authors, chronologically arranged and classed as Poets, 
Historians, Dramatists, Philosophers, Metaphysicians, Divines, etc., with choice selections from 
their writings, connected by a Biographical, Historical, and Critical Narrative ; thus presenting a 
complete view of English Literature, from the earliest to the present time. Let the reader open 
where he will, he cannot fail to find matter for profit and delight. The Selections are gems, — 
infinite riches in alittle room, — in the language of another "A whole English Library fused 

DOWN INTO ONE CHEAP BOOK.1" 

csr The American edition of this valuable work is enriched by the addition of fine steel and 
mezzotint Engravings of the heads of Shakspeake, Addison, Btbon; a full length portrait of 
Db. Johnson j and a beautiful scenic representation of Olives Goldsmith and De. JonNSON. 
These important and elegant additions, together with superior paper and binding, render the 
Amebic ax, superior to all other editions. 

CHAMBERS' MISCELLANY OF USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING KNOWL- 
EDGE. Edited by William Chambers. With elegant Illustrative Engravings. 10 vols. 

cloth,.... 7,50 

cloth, gilt, 10,00 

library, sheep, .... 10,00 

«• This work has been highly recommended by distinguished individuals, as admirably adapted 
to Family, Sabbath and District School Libraries. 

" It would be difficult to find any miscellany superior or even equal to it ; it richly deserves the 
epithets ' useful and entertaining,' and I would recommend it very strongly, as extremely well 
adapted to form parts of a library for the young, or of a social or circulating library, in town or 
country." — George B. Emerson, Esq., Chairman Boston School Book Committee. 

CHAMBERS' PAPERS FOR THE PEOPLE. 12mo, in beautiful ornamented 
covers i 

This series is mainly addressed to that numerous class whose minds have been educated by the 
Improved schooling, and the numerous popular lectures and publications of the present day, and 
who consequently crave a higher kind of Literature than can be obtained through the existing 
cheap periodicals. The Papers embrace History, Archaeology, Biography, Science, the Industrial 
and Fine Arts, the leading topics in Social Economy, together with Criticism, Fiction, Personal 
Narrative, and other branches of Elegant Literature, each number containing a distinct subject. 

The series will consist of sixteen numbers, of 193 pages each, and when completed, will make 
eight handsome volumes of about 400 pages each. 



JAN 271949 







% ^ 









Z^ 









A. 



% 






<, 



^ 



C 










.- A, 

s " 



<<\ 












++ $ 

^ ^ 






^0* 







a - 



v 



k v %> 



& * 






& <* 



V 



K 






\.A* 









V * ' 



3 ^ c/^ ' 










■</> \1 



C? 






.0 



; / °- 






% <%> 



V 



A- 



k V ^ 






v-- 



^ A'- 






**e* A. 



% ^ & & 









%. 



'• % 


















cP "^ c?' ■% c?- - 



<£ 






^ ^<- 









\V ^ ' 



■ 



<\ 



\4? 






^ 















0° 









^ 









W 






. \ v 



& 



& Q, 






O- 






% 



\ °^. 















• 



^ ^ .# ^ 






■ 



^ 



6 ^ 









s >\--,% 



^tf 
^ ^ 



•> 



^o 



* ^ 



\# 



'%^ , <jfr 



"*<s? 



v. 









& "^ CP , 






*<• 






<T> 






F 



^d< 



^. 0^ 



^ 









O-. «kV- 



l r 









V 



^ 






r ' ^ A> 



% v - 






-o- 



<. 






^ 



^0 X ' 



^ 

^ 



^/ ' rO^ 



■<&> 



% 










^ °« 






O- 



<b„^ 



v 






